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: Introduction: Adherence counselling with point‐of‐care (POC) drug‐level feedback using a novel tenofovir assay may support pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) adherence; however, perceptions of urine testing and its impact on adherence are not well studied. We qualitatively examined how POC tenofovir testing was experienced by transgender women (TGW) in Uganda. Methods: Within a cluster randomized trial of peer‐delivered HIV self‐testing, self‐sampling for sexually transmitted infections and PrEP among HIV‐negative TGW showing overall low PrEP prevention‐effective adherence (NCT04328025), we conducted a nested qualitative sub‐study of the urine POC assay among a random sample of 30 TGW (August 2021−February 2022). TGW interviews explored: (1) experiences with POC urine tenofovir testing and (2) perceptions of PrEP adherence counselling with drug‐level feedback. We used an inductive content analytic approach for analysis. Results: Median age was 21 years (interquartile range 20–24), and 70% engaged in sex work. Four content categories describe how TGW experienced POC urine tenofovir testing: (1) Urine tenofovir testing was initially met with scepticism: Testing urine to detect PrEP initially induced anxiety, with some perceptions of being intrusive and unwarranted. With counselling, however, participants found POC testing acceptable and beneficial. (2) Alignment of urine test results and adherence behaviours: Drug‐level feedback aligned with what TGW knew about their adherence. Concurrence between pill taking and tenofovir detection in urine reinforced confidence in test accuracy. (3) Interpretation of urine tenofovir results: TGW familiar with the interpretation of oral‐fluid HIV self‐tests knew that two lines on the test device signified positivity (presence of HIV). However, two lines on the urine test strip indicated a positive result for non‐adherence (absence of tenofovir), causing confusion. Research nurses explained the difference in test interpretation to participants’ satisfaction. (4) White coat dosing: Some TGW deliberately chose not to attend scheduled clinic appointments to avoid detecting their PrEP non‐adherence during urine testing. They restarted PrEP before returning to clinic, a behaviour called “white coat dosing.” Conclusions: Incorporating POC urine testing into routine PrEP adherence counselling was acceptable and potentially beneficial for TGW but required attention to context. Additional research is needed to identify effective strategies for optimizing adherence monitoring and counselling for this population., INTRODUCTION Transgender women (TGW), who are biologically assigned male at birth but identify as female, face a significant burden of HIV in East and Southern Africa. The reported prevalence of [...]

: Introduction: Peer delivery is a client‐centred approach that could maximize the coverage and impact of HIV services for transgender women (TGW). We conducted qualitative interviews to examine how peer‐delivered HIV self‐testing (HIVST), sexually transmitted infection self‐sampling (STISS) and oral pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) influenced prevention choices among TGW and their intimate partners in Uganda. Methods: Within a cluster randomized trial of peer‐delivered HIVST, STISS and PrEP among HIV‐negative TGW (NCT04328025), we conducted 55 qualitative interviews with 30 TGW, 15 intimate partners and 10 TGW peers (August 2021–February 2022). TGW interviews explored: (1) HIV self‐test and PrEP experiences; (2) HIVST with intimate partners; and (3) descriptions of self‐sampling for STI testing. Partner interviews covered: (1) experiences with HIVST; (2) disclosure of HIV status to intimate partner; and (3) descriptions of sexual behaviours after testing. Peer interview topics included: (1) intervention delivery experiences; and (2) recommendations for peer‐delivered HIV prevention services to TGW, including psychological support and coping strategies. Qualitative data were analysed using an inductive content analytic approach. Results: Peer‐delivered combination prevention was valued by this group of TGW and their partners. (1) Peer services extended beyond delivering HIV/STI kits and PrEP refills to caring for individual health and wellbeing by providing stigma coping strategies. Peer psychosocial support empowered research participants to become “HIVST ambassadors,” teach non‐study TGW about self‐testing and PrEP, and encourage linkage to care. (2) HIVST with intimate partners and mutual disclosure of HIV status strengthened partnered relationships. PrEP use after both partners tested HIV negative implied infidelity. (3) Self‐sampling enabled TGW to take control of their STI testing and avoid the embarrassment of exposing their bodies. Privacy and confidentiality motivated the uptake of STI testing and treatment. Conclusions: In this sample of TGW from Uganda, peer delivery of HIVST, STISS and PrEP refills benefitted individual prevention efforts and extended to a new linkage of TGW not engaged in care. Integrating peer services into differentiated PrEP delivery could increase HIV/STI test coverage and PrEP use in this vulnerable population., INTRODUCTION Globally, transgender women (TGW; people who are assigned male sex at birth but identify as female) are 14 times as likely to be living with HIV as other women [...]

Introduction: UNAIDS fast track targets for ending the AIDS epidemic by 2030 call for viral suppression in 95% of people using antiretroviral therapy (ART) to treat HIV infection. Difficulties in linking to care following a positive HIV test have impeded progress towards meeting treatment targets. Community-based HIV services may reduce linkage barriers and have been associated with high retention and favourable clinical outcomes. We use qualitative data from The Delivery Optimization of Antiretroviral Therapy (DO ART) Study, a three-arm randomized trial of community ART initiation, monitoring and re-supply conducted in western Uganda and KwaZulu-Natal South Africa, to identify mechanisms through which community ART delivery may improve treatment outcomes, defined as viral suppression in people living with HIV (PLHIV). Methods: We conducted open-ended interviews with a purposeful sample of 150 DO ART participants across study arms and study sites, from October 2016 to November 2019. Interviews covered experiences of: (1) HIV testing; (2) initiating and refilling ART; and (3) participating in the DO ART Study. A combined inductive content analytic and thematic approach was used to characterize mechanisms through which community delivery of ART may have contributed to viral suppression in the DO ART trial. Results: The analysis yielded four potential mechanisms drawn from qualitative data representing the perspectives and priorities of DO ART participants. Empowering participants to schedule, re-schedule and select the locations of community-based visits via easy phone contact with clinical staff is characterized as flexibility. Integration refers to combining the components of clinic-based visits into single interaction with a healthcare provider. Providers' willingness to talk at length with participants during visits, addressing non-HIV as well as HIV-related concerns, is termed 'a slower pace'. Finally, increased efficiency denotes the time savings and increased income-generating opportunities for participants brought about by delivering services in the community. Conclusions: Understanding the mechanisms through which HIV service delivery innovations produce an effect is key to transferability and potential scale-up. The perspectives and priorities of PLHIV can indicate actionable changes for HIV care programs that may increase engagement in care and improve treatment outcomes. Keywords: delivery of healthcare; antiretroviral therapy; quality of healthcare; Uganda; South Africa; HIV, 1 | INTRODUCTION UNAIDS fast track targets for ending the AIDS epidemic by 2030 call for viral suppression in 95% of people using antiretroviral therapy (ART) to treat HIV infection [...]

Introduction: HIV self-testing (HIVST) and oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) are complementary, evidence-based, self-controlled HIV prevention tools that may be particularly appealing to sex workers. Understanding how HIVST and PrEP are perceived and used by sex workers and their intimate partners could inform prevention delivery for this population. We conducted qualitative interviews to examine ways in which HIVST and PrEP use influence prevention choices among sex workers in Uganda. Methods: Within a randomized trialof HIVST and PrEP among 110 HIV-negative cisgender women, cisgender men and trans-gender women sex workers (NCT03426670), we conducted 40 qualitative interviews with 30 sex workers and 10 intimate partners (June 2018 to January 2020). Sex worker interviews explored (a) experiences of using HIVST kits; (b) how HIVST was performed with sexualpartners; (c) impact of HIVST on PrEP pilltaking; and (d) sexualrisk behaviours after HIVST Partner interviews covered (i) introduction of HIVST; (ii) experiences of using HIVST; (iii) HIV status disclosure; and (iv) HIVST's effect on sexualbehaviours. Data were analysed using an inductive content analytic approach centering on descriptive category development. Together, these categories detailthe meaning of HIVST and PrEP for these qualitative participants. Results: Using HIVST and PrEP was empowering for this group of sex workers and their partners. Three types of empowerment were observed: (a) economic; (b) relational; and (c) sexualhealth. (i) Using HIVST and PrEP made sex without condoms safer. Sex workers could charge more for condomless sex, which was empowering economically. (ii) Self-testing restored trust in partners' fidelity upon being reunited after a separation. This trust, in combination with condomless sex made possible by PrEP use, restored intimacy, empowering partnered relationships. (iii) HIVST and PrEP enabled sex workers to take control of their HIV prevention efforts and avoid the stigma of public clinic visits. In this way they were empowered to protect their sexualhealth. Conclusions: In this sample, sex workers' use of HIVST and PrEP benefitted not only prevention efforts, but also economic and relational empowerment. Understanding these larger benefits and communicating them to stakeholders could strengthen uptake and use of combination prevention interventions in this marginalized population. Keywords: Africa; empowerment; HIV prevention; HIV self-testing; pre-exposure prophylaxis; sex workers, 1 | INTRODUCTION Worldwide, transgender and female sex workers (SW) are 48.8 and 13.5 times more likely to be living with HIV than other women of reproductive age, respectively [1,2]. [...]

: Introduction: Increased HIV testing by men in sub‐Saharan Africa is key to meeting UNAIDS 2025 testing targets. Secondary distribution of HIV self‐testing (HIVST) kits by pregnant women attending antenatal care to male partners has been shown to increase testing among African men. A detailed understanding of how women and male partners manage the distribution and use of HIVST and subsequent linkage to clinic‐based follow‐up can inform implementation and scale‐up efforts. Methods: We use qualitative data from the Obumu Study, a randomized trial of secondary distribution of HIVST by pregnant women living with HIV to male partners in Kampala, Uganda, to unpack the HIVST delivery process. The protocol included a clinic visit by male partners to confirm HIVST results. Individual interviews eliciting data on experiences of delivering and using HIVST and of subsequent linkage to clinic‐based testing were conducted with a purposefully selected sample of 45 women and 45 male partner Obumu Study participants from November 2018 to March 2021. Interview data from 59 participants (29 women and 30 men) in the HIVST arm were analysed through coding and category construction. Results: Women living with HIV were apprehensive about delivering HIVST to their partners, especially if they had not disclosed their HIV status. They invested effort in developing strategies for introducing HIVST. Male partners described a range of responses to receiving the self‐testing kit, especially fear of a positive test result. Women reported leading the self‐testing process, often conducting the test themselves. Most women confidently interpreted HIVST results. However, they tended to defer to healthcare workers rather than report positive results directly to partners. Women told their partners the testing process required a clinic follow‐up visit, often without explaining the visit's purpose. Many partners delayed the visit as a result. Women again responded by strategizing to persuade their partners to link to follow‐up care. Conclusions: Secondary distribution of HIVST by pregnant women living with HIV to male partners can be challenging, especially when women have not disclosed their HIV status. Additional support may alleviate the burden; outreach to male partners may facilitate linkage to confirmatory testing and HIV care or prevention., INTRODUCTION Increasing rates of HIV testing by men in sub‐Saharan Africa is key to meeting the UNAIDS 2025 target calling for 95% of individuals living with HIV to know their [...]

Introduction: Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV infection is being rolled out in Africa. The uptake of PrEP to date has varied across populations and locations. We seek to understand the drivers of demand for PrEP through analysis of qualitative data collected in conjunction with a PrEP demonstration project involving East African HIV serodiscordant couples. Our goal was to inform demand creation by understanding what PrEP means--beyond HIV prevention--for the lives of users. Methods: The Partners Demonstration Project evaluated an integrated strategy of PrEP and antiretroviral therapy (ART) delivery in which time-limited PrEP served as a 'bridge' to long-term ART. Uninfected partners in HIV serodiscordant couples were offered PrEP at baseline and encouraged to discontinue once infected partners had taken ART for six months. We conducted 274 open-ended interviews with 93 couples at two Ugandan research sites. Interviews took place one month after enrolment and at later points in the follow-up period. Topics included are as follows: (1) discovery of serodiscordance; (2) decisions to accept/decline PrEP and/or ART; (3) PrEP and ART initiation; (4) experiences of using PrEP and ART; (5) PrEP discontinuation; (6) impact of PrEP and ART on the partnered relationship. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. We used an inductive, content analytic approach to characterize meanings of PrEP stemming from its effectiveness for HIV prevention. Relevant content was represented as descriptive categories. Results: Discovery of HIV serodiscordance resulted in fear of HIV transmission for couples, which led to loss of sexual intimacy in committed relationships, and to abandonment of plans for children. As a result, partners became alienated from each other. PrEP countered the threat to the relationship by reducing fear and reinstating hopes of having children together. Condom use worked against the re-establishment of intimacy and closeness. By increasing couples' sense of protection against HIV infection and raising the prospect of a return to 'live sex' (sex without condoms), PrEP was perceived by couples as solving the problem of serodiscordance and preserving committed relationships. Conclusions: The most effective demand creation strategies for PrEP may be those that address the everyday life priorities of potential users in addition to HIV prevention. Clinical Trial Number: NCT02775929 Keywords: prevention; PrEP; HIV; serodiscordant couples; East Africa; demand creation, 1 | INTRODUCTION Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) has proven highly effective in preventing HIV infection when taken regularly [1-3]. Moreover, PrEP can be delivered safely, with high uptake and adherence by [...]

The cost of transportation for monthly clinic visits has been identified as a potential barrier to antiretroviral (ARV) adherence in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere, although there is limited data on this issue. We conducted open-ended interviews with 41 individuals living with HIV/AIDS and attending a clinic in Mbarara, Uganda, to understand structural barriers to ARV adherence and clinical care. Almost all respondents cited the need to locate funds for the monthly clinic visit as a constant source of stress and anxiety, and lack of money for transportation was a key factor in cases of missed doses and missed medical appointments. Participants struggled with competing demands between transport costs and other necessities such as food, housing and school fees. Our findings suggest that transportation costs can compromise both ARV adherence and access to care. Interventions that address this barrier will be important to ensure the success of ARV programs in sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: High adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is critical for achieving viral suppression and preventing onward HIV transmission. ART continuation can be challenging for pregnant women living with HIV (PWLHIV), which has critical implications for risk of vertical HIV transmission. Point-of-care viral load (POC VL) testing has been associated with improved treatment and retention outcomes. We sought to explore acceptability of POC VL testing among Ugandan PWLHIV during pregnancy and postpartum. Methods: This multimethod analysis drew on quantitative and qualitative data collected between February and December 2021. Quantitatively, we used an intent-to-treat analysis to assess whether randomization to clinic-based POC VL testing during pregnancy and infant testing at delivery was associated with improved viral suppression (≤50 copies/mL) by 3 months postpartum compared to standard-of-care (SOC) VL testing through a central laboratory, adjusting for factorial randomization for the male partner testing strategy. Additionally, a subset of 22 PWLHIV in the POC VL arm participated in in-depth qualitative interviews. We inductively analyzed transcripts to develop categories representing concepts that characterized women's perceptions of POC VL testing during pregnancy and at delivery and ways that POC VL testing may have impacted their ART adherence and viral suppression. Key themes around women's perceptions of POC VL testing were then organized into main categories. Results: Overall, 151 PWLHIV were enrolled into the study, 77 (51%) of whom were randomized to receive POC VL testing during pregnancy and at delivery. Women reported in qualitative interviews that POC VL testing had (1) motivated their ART adherence during pregnancy and postpartum and that they felt this testing method had (2) helped them protect their infants from acquiring HIV and (3) improved their emotional wellbeing. Conclusions: POC VL testing was highly acceptable among Ugandan PWLHIV and was viewed as an important tool that women believed improved their ART adherence, gave them information necessary to protect their infants from vertical HIV acquisition, and improved their emotional wellbeing. These findings support the global scale-up of POC VL testing in settings with high HIV burden, especially for PWLHIV who may be at risk of treatment disruptions or loss to follow-up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Serodiscordant couples are a priority population for delivery of new HIV prevention interventions in Africa. An integrated strategy of delivering time-limited, oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to uninfected partners in serodiscordant couples as a bridge to long-term antiretroviral treatment (ART) for infected partners has been implemented in East Africa, nearly eliminating new infections. We conducted a qualitative evaluation of the integrated strategy in Uganda, to better understand its success. Methods: Data collection consisted of 274 in-depth interviews with 93 participating couples, and 55 observations of clinical encounters between couples and healthcare providers. An inductive content analytic approach aimed at understanding and interpreting couples' experiences of the integrated strategy was used to examine the data. Analysis sought to characterize: (1) key aspects of services provided; (2) what the services meant to recipients; and (3) how couples managed the integrated strategy. Themes were identified in each domain, and represented as descriptive categories. Categories were grouped inductively into more general propositions based on shared content. Propositions were linked and interpreted to explain 'why the integrated strategy worked.' Results: Couples found 'couples-focused' services provided through the integrated strategy strengthened partnered relationships threatened by the discovery of serodiscordance. They saw in services hope for 'getting help' to stay together, turned joint visits to clinic into opportunities for mutual support, and experienced counselling as bringing them closer together. Couples adopted a 'couples orientation' to the integrated strategy, considering the health of partners as they made decisions about initiating ART or accepting PrEP, and devising joint approaches to adherence. A couples orientation to services, grounded in strengthened partnerships, may have translated to greater success in using antiretrovirals to prevent HIV transmission. Conclusions: Various strategies for delivering antiretrovirals for HIV prevention are being evaluated. Understanding how and why these strategies work will improve evaluation processes and strengthen implementation platforms. We highlight the role of service organization in shaping couples' experiences of and responses to ART and PrEP in the context of the integrated strategy. Organizing services to promote positive care experiences will strengthen delivery and contribute to positive outcomes as antiretrovirals for prevention are rolled out. Keywords: HIV prevention; evaluation; mechanism of effect; service delivery; pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP); antiretroviral treatment (ART); implementation; Uganda, 1 | INTRODUCTION HIV serodiscordant couples--in which one partner is HIV-infected and the other uninfected--are a priority population for delivery of new HIV-prevention interventions in Africa. Oral antiretroviral medications are [...]

BackgroundWireless electronic adherence monitors can detect antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence lapses and trigger interventions in real time, thus potentially avoiding unnecessary HIV viremia. Evidence about the acceptability and feasibility of these monitors and associated interventions, however, is limited. ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to assess the acceptability and feasibility of real-time adherence monitoring linked to text messaging (short message service, SMS) reminders and notifications to support adherence among individuals living with HIV who are taking ART in rural southwestern Uganda. MethodsIndividuals living with HIV who were initiating ART were enrolled in a pilot randomized controlled trial and followed up for 9 months. Participants received a real-time adherence monitor and were randomized to one of the following study arms: (1) scheduled SMS, (2) SMS triggered by missed or delayed doses, or (3) no SMS. SMS notifications were also sent to 45 patient-identified social supporters for sustained adherence lapses in the scheduled SMS and triggered SMS arms. Study participants and social supporters participated in qualitative semistructured in-depth interviews on acceptability and feasibility of this technology. An inductive, content analytic approach, framed by the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology model, was used to analyze qualitative data. Quantitative feasibility data, including device functionality and SMS tracking data, were recorded based upon device metrics collected electronically and summarized descriptively. ResultsA total of 63 participants participated in the study. Participants reported that real-time monitoring intervention linked to SMS reminders and notifications are generally acceptable; the predominant feedback was perceived utility—the intervention was beneficial in motivating and reminding patients to take medication, as well as enabling provision of social support. ConclusionsReal-time adherence monitoring integrated with SMS reminders and social support notifications is a generally acceptable (based primarily on perceived utility) and feasible intervention in a resource-limited country. Future efforts should focus on optimized device design, user training to overcome the challenges we encountered, cost effectiveness studies, as well as studying the monitoring aspect of the device without accompanying interventions. Trial RegistrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT01957865; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01957865 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6zFiDlXDa)

Background Individuals living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa generally take more than 90% of prescribed doses of antiretroviral therapy (ART). This number exceeds the levels of adherence observed in North America and dispels early scale-up concerns that adherence would be inadequate in settings of extreme poverty. This paper offers an explanation and theoretical model of ART adherence success based on the results of an ethnographic study in three sub-Saharan African countries. Methods and Findings Determinants of ART adherence for HIV-infected persons in sub-Saharan Africa were examined with ethnographic research methods. 414 in-person interviews were carried out with 252 persons taking ART, their treatment partners, and health care professionals at HIV treatment sites in Jos, Nigeria; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; and Mbarara, Uganda. 136 field observations of clinic activities were also conducted. Data were examined using category construction and interpretive approaches to analysis. Findings indicate that individuals taking ART routinely overcome economic obstacles to ART adherence through a number of deliberate strategies aimed at prioritizing adherence: borrowing and "begging" transport funds, making "impossible choices" to allocate resources in favor of treatment, and "doing without." Prioritization of adherence is accomplished through resources and help made available by treatment partners, other family members and friends, and health care providers. Helpers expect adherence and make their expectations known, creating a responsibility on the part of patients to adhere. Patients adhere to promote good will on the part of helpers, thereby ensuring help will be available when future needs arise. Conclusion Adherence success in sub-Saharan Africa can be explained as a means of fulfilling social responsibilities and thus preserving social capital in essential relationships., Introduction People living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa generally take more than 90% of prescribed doses of antiretroviral therapy (ART) [1-12]. This number exceeds the levels of adherence observed in [...]

A heuristic schema for examining the validity of conceptual models of adherence in resource-limited settings is presented. Before applying existing models in new sociocultural contexts, they should be examined for validity and adapted as necessary for a good fit to offer a set of practical conceptual tools for examining adherence models for cross-cultural validity.

Constructive relationships between clinicians and patients being treated for HIV/AIDS are critical to treatment success. Trust, caring, and expertise have all been cited as important components of such relationships. As-yet unexamined, however, is the impact of the urgency patients sense in their clinicians concerning proper adherence to antiretroviral medications. Qualitative interviews (total, 214) from a study of adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for active illegal drug users (n = 52) provided data for the analysis. Among other topics, interviews examined patients' perspectives on relationships with their providers. Study participants experienced their physicians as insisting on perfect adherence. Fearing disapproval if they disclosed missing doses, interviewees chose instead to conceal adherence information. Apprehensions about failing at perfect adherence led some to cease taking antiretrovirals over the course of the study. Well-intentioned efforts by clinicians to emphasize the importance of adherence can paradoxically undermine the very behavior they are intended to promote. Adherence can be approached in ways that inspire honesty and openness and build trust in the treatment relationship, laying the groundwork for a collaborative approach to solving problems in taking antiretroviral medications as prescribed.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy promotes viral suppression and extends the lives of individuals with HIV, yet illegal drug users are underrepresented among eligible persons receiving HIV treatment. One explanation for this is the assumption that drug users are less capable than others of adhering to complicated medication regimens. This paper investigates this assumption by making explicit a number of its underlying propositions and examining them in light of data collected from 52 active drug users living in and around Boston, USA, who were taking highly active antiretroviral therapy for HIV (HAART). The propositions are: (1) drug users lead 'chaotic' lives; (2) active drug users are always using drugs; (3) being under the influence of drugs precludes taking medications as prescribed; and (4) drug users are intrinsically different from non-users in the lives they lead and the problems they face. Data collection consisted of a series of qualitative interviews with each participant. An analytic approach informed by grounded theory was used to construct thematic content categories from the data. Results revealed stability and control as well as 'chaos' in the lives of study participants. Frequency of drug use varied considerably. Using did interfere with adherence, but not in every circumstance or all cases. Not 'carrying' medications, competing priorities, and re-defining regimens were the most salient of a number of non-drug-use-related obstacles observed. Documentation of patterns of variation in corresponding data highlights the stereotypical quality of the propositions. Stereotyping risks overemphasis on drug use as a barrier to adherence for active users, and underemphasis on non-drug-use-related obstacles. Adherence capabilities of users, in contrast to inadequacies, are also obscured through stereotyping. As a medium for stigmatization, stereotyping may contribute to unequal treatment for drug users and other populations living with HIV. Keywords: HIV treatment; Adherence; Illegal drug use; Unequal treatment; Stereotyping; Stigma; Qualitative research; USA

Introduction: Transgender (trans) men in sub‐Saharan Africa are a hidden and vulnerable population who may engage in sex work due to socio‐economic exclusion and lack of alternative employment opportunities. Little is known about HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STI) risk among trans men in this setting. We conducted a multi‐method study to characterize HIV/STI risk among trans men in Uganda. Methods: Between January and October 2020, we enrolled 50 trans men into a cross‐sectional study through snowball sampling. Data were collected on socio‐demographic characteristics, sexual practices and depression. We conducted 20 qualitative interviews to explore: (1) descriptions of sexual practices that could increase HIV/STI exposure; (2) experiences of accessing public healthcare facilities; (3) perceptions of HIV or STI testing; (4) HIV and STI service delivery; and (5) drug and alcohol use. We used an inductive content analytic approach centring on descriptive category development to analyse the data. Results: The median age was 25 years (interquartile range 23–28). The prevalence of HIV, syphilis and hepatitis B was 4%, 6% and 8%, respectively. We observed multiple levels of intersecting individual, interpersonal and structural stigmas. (1) Trans men reported transphobic rape motivated by interpersonal stigma that was psychologically traumatizing to the survivor. The resultant stigma and shame hindered healthcare access. (2) Structural stigma and economic vulnerability led to sex work, which increased the risk of HIV and other STIs. Sex work stigma further compounded vulnerability. (3) Individualized stigma led to fear of disclosure of gender identity and HIV status. Concealment was used as a form of stigma management. (4) Multiple levels of stigma hampered access to healthcare services. Preference for trans‐friendly care was motivated by stigma avoidance in public facilities. Overall, the lived experiences of trans men highlight the intertwined relationship between stigma and sexual health. Conclusions: In this sample from Uganda, trans men experienced stigma at multiple levels, highlighting the need for gender‐sensitive healthcare delivery. Stigma reduction interventions, including provider training, non‐discrimination policies, support groups and stigma counselling, could strengthen uptake and utilization of prevention services by this marginalized population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Antenatal care (ANC) prevents perinatal morbidity and mortality, but use of these services in Uganda remains low and maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the world. There is growing evidence that mobile health (mHealth) approaches improve timely communication of health-related information and produce positive health behavior change as well as health outcomes. However, there are limited data to guide development of such interventions in settings where ANC attendance and uptake of skilled maternity care are low. Objective: The aim of this study is to develop a novel patient-centered mHealth intervention to encourage and support women to use maternity care services in Mbarara district, southwestern Uganda. Methods: Using an iterative development approach, we conducted formative stakeholder interviews with 30 women and 5 health care providers (HCPs) to identify preferred key ANC topics and characterize the preferred messaging intervention; developed content for SMS text messaging and audio messaging with the help of 4 medical experts based on the identified topics; designed an app prototype through partnership with an mHealth development company; and pilot-tested the prototype and sought user experiences and feedback to refine the intervention through 3 sets of iterative interviews, a focus group discussion, and 5 cognitive interviews. Qualitative data were coded and analyzed using NVivo (version 12.0; QSR International). Results: Of the 75 women who completed interviews during the development of the prototype, 39 (52%) had at least a primary education and 75 (100%) had access to a mobile phone. The formative interviews identified 20 preferred perinatal health topics, ranging from native medicine use to comorbid disorders and danger signs during pregnancy. In all, 6 additional topics were identified by the interviewed HCPs, including birth preparedness, skilled delivery, male partner's involvement, HCP interaction, immunization, and caring for the baby. Positive audio messaging and SMS text messaging content without authoritative tones was developed as characterized by the interviewed women. The postpilot iterative interviews and focus group discussion revealed a preference for customized messaging, reflecting an individual need to be included and connected. The women preferred short, concise, clear actionable messages that guided, supported, and motivated them to keep alert and seek professional help. Complementary weekly reminders to the women's significant others were also preferred to encourage continuity or prompt the needed social support for care seeking. Conclusions: We used an iterative approach with diffuse stakeholders to develop a patient-centered audio messaging and SMS text messaging app designed to communicate important targeted health-related information and support rural pregnant women in southwestern Uganda. Involving both HCPs and end users in developing and formulating the mHealth intervention allowed us to tailor the intervention characteristics to the women's preferences. Future work will address the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of this design approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]