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Against a background of increasing violence against non-natives, we estimate the effect of hate crime on refugees’ mental health in Germany. For this purpose, we combine two datasets: administrative records on xenophobic crime against refugee shelters by the Federal Criminal Office and the IAB-BAMF-SOEP Survey of Refugees. We apply a regression discontinuity in time design to estimate the effect of interest. Our results indicate that hate crime has a substantial negative effect on several mental health indicators, including the Mental Component Summary score and the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 score. The effects are stronger for refugees with closer geographic proximity to the focal hate crime and refugees with low country-specific human capital. While the estimated effect is only transitory, we argue that negative mental health shocks during the critical period after arrival have important long-term consequences. Keywords: Mental health, hate crime, migration, refugees, human capital.

The large literature that aims to find evidence of climate migration delivers mixed findings. This meta-regression analysis i) summarizes direct links between adverse climatic events and migration, ii) maps patterns of climate migration, and iii) explains the variation in outcomes. Using a set of limited dependent variable models, we meta-analyze thus-far the most comprehensive sample of 3,625 estimates from 116 original studies and produce novel insights on climate migration. We find that extremely high temperatures and drying conditions increase migration. We do not find a significant effect of sudden-onset events. Climate migration is most likely to emerge due to contemporaneous events, to originate in rural areas and to take place in middle-income countries, internally, to cities. The likelihood to become trapped in affected areas is higher for women and in low-income countries, particularly in Africa. We uniquely quantify how pitfalls typical for the broader empirical climate impact literature affect climate migration findings. We also find evidence of different publication biases., CEPA Discussion Papers; 29

We investigate how the intensity of Ramadan affects educational outcomes by exploiting spatio-temporal variation in annual fasting hours. Longer fasting hours are related to increases in student performance in a panel of TIMMS test scores (1995–2019) across Muslim countries but not other countries. Results are confirmed in a panel of PISA test scores (2003–2018) allowing within country-wave comparisons of Muslim to non-Muslim students across Europe. We provide evidence consistent with the hypothesis that a demanding Ramadan during adolescence affects educational performance by facilitating formation of social capital and social identity via increased religious participation and shared experiences among students. published

In this paper, we study the effect of exogenous global crop price changes on migration from agricultural and non-agricultural households in Sub-Saharan Africa. We show that, similar to the effect of positive local weather shocks, the effect of a locally-relevant global crop price increase on household out-migration depends on the initial household wealth. Higher international producer prices relax the budget constraint of poor agricultural households and facilitate migration. The order of magnitude of a standardized price effect is approx. one third of the standardized effect of a local weather shock. Unlike positive weather shocks, which mostly facilitate internal rural-urban migration, positive income shocks through rising producer prices only increase migration to neighboring African countries, likely due to the simultaneous decrease in real income in nearby urban areas. Finally, we show that while higher producer prices induce conflict, conflict does not play a role for the household decision to send a member as a labor migrant., CEPA Discussion Papers; 26

Changes in the 21st century are happening more quickly, unexpectedly, not always in the way desired for the smooth functioning enterprises are turning up. It is domain of the globalization, where new events - chances or threats, cause challenges of the market, before which at present permanently all enterprises are being put. More and more he depends on immaterial resources of the enterprise which they constitute about his strategic potential. Companies form and are developing abilities, is exchanging them for competence which are becoming a base of their competitiveness. In this process he is becoming crucial conditioning, not that much what optimum, but competent managing the intellectual capital, of which meaning in the last period still is growing, and joint employing all organizational units is deciding on the market success. Some work demands a lot of the knowledge, of experience and the independent and custom thinking than other. It is essential for all employers in order to notice these differences creating the principle of the management new ketegoria of specialists, having a useful knowledge for functioning of the enterprise - with knowledge workers. Therefore an attempt to show the management system is a purpose of this article with knowledge workers in contemporary enterprises, based on conducted examinations, at turn 2013 and of 2014, in 100 large firms, acting in the area of the Baltic Sea Region.

This paper evaluates the effect of an anti-poverty program, Chile Solidario, during its first two years of operation. We find that the program tends to increases significantly their take-up of cash assistance programs and of social programs for housing and employment, and to improve education and health outcomes for participating households. There is no evidence that the participation to employment program translates into improved employment or income outcomes in the short term. Finally, we provide suggestive evidence of the key role that the psycho-social support had in enabling this change, by increasing awareness of social services in the community as well as households’ orientation towards the future., En este estudio se evalúa el efecto de un programa de lucha contra la pobreza, Chile Solidario, durante sus primeros dos años de funcionamiento. Encontramos que el programa tiende a aumentar significativamente su asimilación para los programas de asistencia en efectivo y los programas de vivienda sociales y empleo, así como a mejorar los resultados de la educación y la salud de los hogares participantes. No hay evidencia de que la participación en programas de empleo se traduzca en mejoras en el empleo o los ingresos en el corto plazo. Finalmente, la evidencia sugiere que el apoyo psicosocial ha tenido un rol fundamental en generar este cambio, tanto por medio de aumentar el conocimiento acerca de los servicios sociales en la comunidad como a través de la orientación de los hogares hacia el futuro.

By the mid-19th century, America was the most educated nation on Earth: significant financial investments in education were being undertaken and the majority of children voluntarily attended public schools. So why did states across America start introducing compulsory schooling laws at this time in history? We provide qualitative and quantitative evidence that states adopted compulsory schooling laws as a nation-building tool to instill civic values to the tens of millions of culturally diverse migrants who arrived during the ‘Age of Mass Migration’ between 1850 and 1914. We show the adoption of state level compulsory schooling laws occurred significantly earlier in states that hosted a subgroup of European migrants with lower exposure to civic values in their home countries. We then use cross-county data to show the same subgroup of European migrants had significantly lower demand for American common schooling pre-compulsion, and so would have been less exposed to the kinds of civic value or discipline instilled by the American education system had compulsory schooling not been passed. By studying the link between mass migration and the endogenous policy responses of American-born voters in receiving states, our analysis provides new micro-foundations for compulsory schooling laws, the legislative bedrock on which all future developments of the American schooling system were built.

The aim of this paper is to assess the role of human capital in attracting FDI in the light of selected empirical studies conducted in Poland and globally. The literature on factors determining FDI location, including those relating to the importance of human capital, is dominated with studies at national or supranational level. Attracting foreign investment has become a key component of national strategies for the CEE countries. The paper makes an attempt to assess the relevance of human capital for FDI inflow at regional and local levels in Poland. At the same time, results of analyses were contrasted with quantitative surveys conducted in Central and Eastern Europe. Investing in education and human capital is important for creating good climate for investment. Evidence shows that achieving a certain minimum level of education is the precondition for a country to attract and maintain foreign direct investment and maximise indirect effects connected with human capital and resulting from the presence of businesses with foreign capital and maximise indirect effects connected with human capital and resulting from the presence of businesses with foreign capital. We should also stress that such a minimum is different for different sectors of the economy. Results of the study conducted in the Lodz Region demonstrated that human capital is an important factor, which attracts FDI to the region.

Mindfulness is increasingly being applied in companies as a means to increase, among others, employee wellbeing and energy, and in the same time to diminish stress. This paper argues that there seems to be scientific evidence showing that certain mindfulness techniques may diminish stress and increase energy, yet it seems that there is a period in the beginning of the mindfulness practice where the techniques have the opposite effects. These findings seem to be contradictory to past findings, which indicated that only two thirds of people practicing mindfulness techniques have positive effects from that practice. It may be that everybody can have positive effects from the practice of the mentioned techniques, just that some need to practice for a longer period before obtaining these positive effects. Further scientific studies seem to be needed in order to clarify the full spectrum of effects and consequences of practicing different mindfulness techniques, and just as important, if these effects are valid for everybody.

In this paper, we empirically investigate the relationship between international migration and education attainment levels. We ask whether rural children who live in households that experience migration or/and receiving remittances are more likely to complete school at a given age than children who live in non-migrant households. Higher secondary and higher education levels are examined separately. Our results clearly show that children in remittance-receiving households complete significantly more years of schooling. In particular, remittances increase the probability of a male child completing high school. However, the evidence suggests that the international migration lowers deeply the chances of children completing higher education. Evidence also indicates the utmost importance of households’ socio-economic status in determining to what extent the household mitigates the possible detrimental effects of migration on their children’s educational outcomes.

Human capital as a critical engine of economic growth is present in many empirical and theoretical body of knowledge on growth models and theory. However, the conclusion on its importance as a driver of economic growth remains inconclusive. The aim of this study is to provide and detailed overview on theoretical and empirical research investigating the role of human capital in the economic growth phenomena. Measuring human capital remains the main obstacle to assessing the importance of human capital and education in economic growth. The time lag present causes additional restrictions in the schooling process itself which in the today dynamic and globalized world present a real obstacle to measuring human capital role in growth models. Costs principle in measuring human capital proxy may not be a best approach to use in growth accounting models. Other not quantitative (subjective) factors affect human capital to a degree not less than quantitative are like motivation, commitment, vision. These factors have to be accounted for if an adequate fit for proxy of human capital in growth models in future prospective research on endogenous growth models and theories.

Education inequality between the rural and urban areas of the People's Republic of China (PRC)—a potential bottleneck for human capital accumulation—has long been of interest to researchers and policymakers. This paper uses data from the China Family Panel Survey (CFPS) and the Rural–Urban Migration in China (RUMiC) survey to compare the education performance of rural children, children of rural-to-urban migrants, and urban children over the period 2009–2010. Results show that education performance of rural children and migrants’ children is significantly lower than that of their urban counterparts even after accounting for differences in personal attributes such as nutrition and parenting style. This provides useful insights for policymaking to reduce rural–urban education inequality and assist human capital accumulation in the PRC.

Since its implementation in 1990, the human development index (HDI), the flagship indicator of multidimensional development, has attracted a great deal of attention and critics in academic, political and media circles. It initiated a new stage in the discussion of appropriate indicators to measure socioeconomic development. Until now, the vast majority of empirical work using the HDI concept has taken a cross-country perspective. The main aim of this paper is the application of the HDI at the sub-country level in small, highly developed and socioeconomically homogenous countries. For this undertaking we use a slightly modified version of the HDI, called the regional development index (RDI). For the components of the RDI - life expectancy, education and standard of living - we use recent cross section information for Austria at the level of districts. There exists considerable heterogeneity across districts in the RDI and its components. Our Theil-decomposition reveals that the overwhelming part of the observed heterogeneity is based on differences within provinces (96 percent), although the differences in life expectancy between the provinces explain a substantial part of the overall heterogeneity in this indicator (54 percent).

This document aims to provide evidence regarding the existence of different patterns in equality of opportunities in academic achievement during the last fifteen years in Colombia. The outcomes selected for measuring inequality are the scores obtained on the national test Saber 11 in math as well as reading. It is found that inequality has increased during this period, and that this trend is common for all the metropolitan areas included in the analysis. Most of the increase found comes from factors related to the school market. It is found that inequality of opportunities is higher than 20% in almost all the studied areas. © 2015 Universidad de Antioquia. All rights reserved.

The objective of this paper is to shed light on the issue of skill mismatch in the context of return migration in Egypt and Tunisia. Using data on both return and potential migrants in Egypt and Tunisia, we analyze the skills that migrants acquire before and during migration and the way these skills are used upon return. We find evidence of skill mismatch, especially in Tunisia. Theundereducation phenomenon is more prevalent among return migrants, indicating that they make up for their lower education using their migration experience. Finally, we estimate the determinants of skill mismatch on the Egyptian and Tunisian labour markets and find a significant negative effect of return migration on the probability of being undereducated.; L'objectif de cet article est d’apporter un éclairage sur la question de l'inadéquation des qualificationsdans le cadre de la migration de retour en Egypte et en Tunisie. En utilisant à la fois des données surles migrants de retour et sur les migrants potentiels en Egypte et en Tunisie, nous analysons lesqualifications que les migrants acquièrent avant et pendant la période de migration et la façon dont cescompétences sont utilisées à leur retour. Nos résultats confirment l’existence d’un fort degréd'inadéquation des qualifications, en particulier en Tunisie. Le phénomène de la sous-éducation estplus présent pour les migrants de retour, indiquant qu'ils compensent leur faible niveau d'éducation enutilisant leur expérience migratoire. Enfin, nous examinons les déterminants de l'inadéquation desqualifications sur les marchés du travail égyptien et tunisien et trouvons en effet une corrélationnégative et significative de la migration de retour sur la probabilité d'être sous-éduqué.

Although patronage politics in democracies has been studied extensively, it is less understood in undemocratic regimes, where a large proportion of the world's population resides. To fill this gap, our paper studies how government officials in authoritarian Vietnam direct public resources toward their hometowns. We manually collect an exhaustive panel dataset of political promotions of officials from 2000 to 2010 and estimate their impact on public infrastructure in their rural hometowns. We obtain three main results. First, promotions of officials improve a wide range of infrastructure in their hometowns, including roads, markets, schools, radio stations, clean water and irrigation. This favoritism is pervasive among officials across different ranks, even among those without budget authority, suggesting informal channels of influence. Second, in contrast to pork-barrel politics in democratic parliaments, elected legislators have no power to exercise favoritism. Third, only home communes receive favors, while larger and more politically important home districts do not. This suggests that favoritism is likely motivated by officials’ social preferences for their hometowns rather than by political considerations.

The premise of this paper is twofold. First, people’s aspirations for their future wellbeing (or that of their children) aect their incentives to invest. Second, the experiences of others help shape one’s aspirations. This paper marries a model of aspirations-based choice with a simple theory of aspirations formation to study the relationship between aspirations and the distribution of income. Through its impact on investments, aspirations aect economic mobility and the income distribution, which in turn shape aspirations. Thus aspirations, income, and the distribution of income evolve jointly, and in many situations in a self-reinforcing way. We study the consequences of this model for income distribution as well as for growth rates over dierent quantiles of the distribution. We show that extreme equality is unstable. Moreover, when the same aspirations are shared in a society, polarization arises. The theory we propose captures both the complacency stemming from low aspirations and the frustration resulting from aspirations that are too high. As a result, for commonly held aspirations, growth rates have an inverted U-shape along the income distribution.

This insight will serve to highlight the trend experienced by the Romanian population, since 1990 until present, focusing on two main dimensions, one that takes into account the demographic aspects and the other that consider the economic side. In first part, the article talks about the problem raised by declining birth rate which leads to a negative natural balance and a long-term damage concerning young workforce. The second part brings forward the problem of emigration which influences the rate of change and also population composition in Romania. A pertinent question is "How did it get here?" and which is the real impact of this behaviour adopted by many citizens.

The aim of this paper is to concentrate on the very recent development performance of two country groups, namely Middle Eastern and North African countries, and to focus on Turkey in an attempt to determine the position of the country in the context of human development. To achieve this, descriptive statistical analysis is used and existing data is assessed in a comparative way to be more specific about the position of Turkey in her path of human development. The analysis period is restricted to the last five years. As a result, it is found that Turkey is in conjunction with the main trends of the countries under investigation and that it deviates from the standards of European and high human development index group of countries. In addition, Turkey’s human development performance of the country mainly accentuated from its relative backwardness in the gender-based indicators. In this context, the country is not only below the averages of the European, Central Asian and high human development index group countries, but also from the relatively backward Middle Eastern countries as well, and therefore, it seems to conform more to the standards of North African countries. In the case of Turkey, instead of attempting to achieve high growth rates, and henceforth to reach high per capita income levels, it would be better for policy makers to concern with advancing the level of human development through emphasizing education, healthcare services and especially struggling with the prevailing gender inequalities in every aspect of socio-economic life.

Development represents an ecolonomic phenomenon whose fruitage falls within the exigencies of 'harmony of integrated live integers'. The current sustainable aspect of the development is incomplete and does not correspond to the requirements of live integer, as world realities present poverty within abundance, pollution in and from developed and undeveloped countries, inhuman social inequalities, a serious waste of ecolonomic esources because of their use especially in the cosmotechnic alarming field. The way from sustainable development to healthy development is conditioned by the replacement of the current institutional value 'no one is above law', with the wisdom 'no one is above love and truth'. Such long term, comprehensive process is favoured by the transition from the current competence-based educational model to the one of education in the cause of life, based on values. The methodology of approaching such subject is 'nestled' in recent trans-disciplinary, holistic research, to which there contribute quantum physics, holistic medicine, systemic biology, transpersonal psychology and new openings of economic approach considering life as a live organism. There is a fundamental, long term objective interpreting economic life from the perspective of the paradigm 'health of live integer' and sliding partial objectives related to reconstruction of current concepts, theories and policies and their integration in the criterion of people's happiness.

Under the pressure of globalization, local communities around the world are looking for new strategies to facilitate local economic development, to reduce poverty and for social inclusion, through harnessing local resources, the creation of workplaces and of better life quality for men and women. In this context, programs to encourage and promote the entrepreneurial spirit in women considering that, on a global level, one third of new businesses are their creation, a significant part of SMEs, the primary source of new workplaces and of economic growth in a local community. In a competition where women continue to be confronted with more obstacles than men, measures must be taken to ensure the best possible context to support female entrepreneurship in such a way that local communities to fully benefit from their potential in creating workplaces, economic and social development on a local, national and European scale. The lack of confidence in creating their own businesses, difficulty in balancing professional and family life, inability to obtain the capital necessary for developing their business, difficulty in preparation and limited access to information are all problems that hinder initiative and the development of women's entrepreneurship. Female entrepreneurs are in need of recognition, from financers and business partners, logistical support and help in increasing managerial and leading capacity.

The purpose of the present paper is to highlight the human development progress and the inequality in human development for Romania. We also want to emphasize the biggest or the smallest losses, making a brief analysis of inequality on the three components: health, education and welfare. In our research we start from the idea that an objective measurement of inequality is necessary for policy makers and not only.

In the literature, social return to education is defined as the sum of human capital return and external return. The novelty of this study is that it provides an international comparison of external return to education. Many authors claim that the social return rate exceeds the pure technical rate of return by a considerable margin. However, measurement of social return is challenged methodologically and by data problems. The approach employed in this study is based on comparative advantage theory which allows control for potential endogeneity and self-selection into different streams of education. External return was found to be positive in all European countries although magnitudes varied. The external return was greater in smaller economies where there was a smaller proportion of highly educated people.

This study shows the relationship between income distribution and other relevant economic variables and their impact on income distribution. Panel data analysis is used to study 200 world economies and identify main income determinants. Using such a large panel to study income distribution and inequality of household income make empirical results of this study significant. Paper results show there is a large discrepancy of income distribution measured by household consumption for different classes (income deciles). Inflation, unemployment, export, labour force, population and unemployment however are the main determinants between income distribution dynamics according to the result of this study.

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to explore the meditating role of employee motivation in the relationship between post-selection Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and perceived performance of Islamic Banks operating in Pakistan. This study was based on primary data collected from 200-employees of different Islamic banks in Pakistan by distributing structured and reliable questionnaires. The demographic profile of respondents was diversified in terms of their grade, age, experience and education. Results of correlation analysis revealed that training & development(r = .829), performance evaluation system(r = .752), career development system(r = .666), extrinsic rewards(r = .921), intrinsic rewards (r = .852) and employee motivation(r =.722) have strong positive association with perceived performance of Islamic banks in Pakistan. Results of hierarchical regression analysis supported that post-selection HRM practices have positive impact on perceived organizational performance and employee motivation acts as mediator in the relationship between post-selection HRM practices and perceived organizational performance. Proper implementation of post-selection HRM practices makes employee motivated that resulted in improved organizational performance. Management of Islamic banks desiring optimum performance should pay special attention to need-based training programs, merit-based performance appraisal system, development of progressive career paths, performance-based extrinsic and intrinsic rewards management. While making HRM policies, employee motivation should be given paramount importance as the results of contemporary studies supported that it is the major contributing factor of higher organizational performance.

Companies operating in a global economy that is constantly changing and developming, especially during the financial crisis and political instability. It is necessary to adapt and develop sales methods in such environment. For large companies who base their activity on sales it has become a necessity to learn different types of sales approaches because their knowledge enables them to grow the number of customers and therefore the sales and the turnover. This paper aims to exame the most effective sales methods used on the highly sensitive economic and social environment – the insurance market. In the field of insurances, the sales process is even more important because sellers need to sell an intangible product that may materialize in the future, but there is no certainty.

Many research studies on the human resources performance of the educational system have proved that pupils/students’ educational success depends, to a high degree, on the level of human resource motivation, as well as on their degree of professional satisfaction. Teachers’ who show a high level of motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, invest more into their activity, are more creative and more efficient in problem solving. The paper debates the results of an empirical study regarding the influence of pre-university teachers’ motivation and satisfaction regarding the general work conditions on their work performance by measuring the present motivation and satisfaction level. Furthermore, the determinant factors of their satisfaction with the work place are determined and analyzed. Finally, based on the statistical data process we will conclude and debate on the research hypothesis validation and the empirical model related to motivation – satisfaction – performance interdependences.

This study evaluates the effect of four randomized interventions aimed at strengthening school committees, and subsequently improving learning outcomes, in public primary schools in Indonesia. All study schools were randomly allocated to either a control group receiving no intervention, or to treatment groups receiving a grant plus one or a combination of three interventions: training for school committee members, a democratic election of school committee members, or facilitated collaboration between the school committee and the village council, also called linkage. Nearly two years after implementation, the study finds that measures to reinforce existing school committee structures, the grant and training interventions, demonstrate limited or no effects; while measures that foster outside ties between the school committee and other parties, linkage and election, lead to greater engagement by education stakeholders and in turn to learning. Test scores improve in Indonesian by 0.17 standard deviations for linkage and 0.22 standard deviations for linkage+election. The election intervention alone leads to changes in time household members accompany children studying per week, but this does not lead to learning. Linkage is the most cost effective intervention, causing a 0.13 change in standard deviation in Indonesian test scores for each 100 dollars (US) spent.

This study investigates the effects of migration possibilities on the demand for education and human capital formation in the labour-sending country. The paper assumes that workers have to pay a pecuniary cost privately to receive education under budget constraints. It was found that higher migration possibilities result in an increase in the number of workers who demand education due to increases in its return. However, these workers lower the individual demand for education due to price increases. When the education supply is insufficient, higher migration possibilities may lower average human capital; that is, a brain drain may occur. This contrasts with the usual argument that emphasises the positive effect of migration possibilities. Restrictive immigration policies were found not to be completely detrimental to labour-sending countries since such policies may enhance the human capital formation., Journal of Economic Integration; 28(4), pp.631-648; 2013

The essential condition for attaining excellence in the informatized administration of the Human Resources Management (HRM) activities is the development and implementation of high-performance e-HRM systems. For this reason, any organization, regardless of her nature and dimensions, needs to make use of the implementation of an e-HRM IT system adapted to its specific needs, because the performances of the HR activities largely depend on the correlation of the software tools with the employees’ abilities. The identification of the benefits of the e-HRM systems and the impact of these systems on the managerial and, implicitly, organizational performances have become highly interesting subjects, both among the theorists and among the practitioners worldwide. In order to detail the effects and the benefits of the implementation of the e-HRM system, we considered it useful to present a case study focused on a private firm of Romania: Arcelor Mittal Company of Galaţi, namely a Steel Mill.

Este artículo revisa la literatura nacional e internacional sobre la relación entre migración de retorno y emprendimiento. Presenta las causas de la migración de retorno y las teorías que la explican. Además, describe los resultados de los trabajos revisados, y compara las metodologías y los datos utilizados en los estudios más representativos. Por último, señala lo que se sabe del tema y los vacíos que persisten, y hace recomendaciones para investigaciones futuras.

The paper highlights a case study of a rural girls college located in a remote village of Gurdaspur district in Indian Punjab. The idea of this unique college was conceptualised by one Baba Aya Singh, a social and religious activist, from a village near the college way back in 1925. It was really a revolutionary idea because female education in India, particularly higher education, was a distant dream at that time. The college was, however, started with only 14 rural girls after about half-a-century when the great visionary Baba Aya Singh had a dream to educate the rural girls. Access to and affordability of higher education is the uniqueness of this college. The student has to pay only Rs. 5800 (about US $ 65) per annum, which includes both the tuition fee and boarding and lodging. It is equally significant to note that the entire expenses of the college are met by this and the produce of agricultural land of the college. The college does not take any outside help. The meritorious senior class students teach the junior class students. The college in its own humble, but significant, way made a revolutionary contribution to the education of poor rural girls who, otherwise, would not have dreamt of college education. Apart from, class-room teaching and bookish knowledge, the students are taught social, ethical and management skills in a most natural manner. The product of the college has proved to be the agents of change and rural transformation.

Exploring the state of Nigerian leadership, there is a clear indication that the nation is in distress and therefore needs a leader who would be able to get the best out of Nigerian followers and lead the nation to stability. This leader must be trustworthy, emotionally intelligent, firm, willing to suffer for the nation, focused on breaking down ethnic divide, and inspiring hope in the people. The leader must be capable of taking in varied information and solving complex problems effectively and efficiently. This paper adopts the concept of leadership as one that involves a social influence process, a leader/leaders and followers. This perspective is impacted by social psychological principles of social influence and clinical psychology socioemotional intelligence and will therefore discuss leadership for Nigeria from these perspectives.

This paper analyzes the equity of opportunity in basic education and infrastructure services in seven developing countries, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. The analysis applies a method developed by the World Bank called the Human Opportunity Index, which measures the total contribution of individual socioeconomic and demographic circumstances to inequality of opportunity in accessing basic services. The new and major contribution of the paper, however, is the development of a methodology that quantifies the relative contribution of each circumstance variable to the inequality of opportunity. This contribution is crucial in identifying which underlying inequalities matter most—which can have important policy implications, for instance, in terms of developing better-targeted interventions. Results of the empirical analysis indicate that more needs to be done to improve the distribution of economic benefits. Opportunities to access basic education and infrastructure services in the seven countries vary widely in terms of availability and distribution. The study also finds that inequality of opportunity is driven mainly by per capita household expenditure. This suggests that household poverty plays a crucial role in determining equitable access to basic services. © 2013 Asian Development Bank and Asian Development Bank Institute.

Inequality in access to education is known to be a key driver of income inequality in developing countries. Viet Nam, a transitional economy, exhibits significant segmentation in the market for skilled labor based on more remunerative employment in government and state firms. We ask whether this segmentation is also reflected in human capital investments at the household level. We find that households whose heads hold state jobs keep their children in school longer, spend more on education, and are more likely to enroll their children in tertiary institutions relative to households whose heads hold nonstate jobs. The estimates are robust to a wide range of household and individual controls. Over time, disparities in educational investments based on differential access to jobs that reward skills and/or credentials help widen existing income and earnings gaps between well-connected “princelings” and the rest of the labor market. Capital market policies that create segmentation in the market for skills also crowd out investment in private sector firms, further reducing incentives for human capital deepening. © 2013 Asian Development Bank and Asian Development Bank Institute.

This discussion paper resulted in an article in the Journal of Development Economics (2013). Volume 103, pages 43-51. To raise school attendance, many programs in developing countries eliminate orreduce private contributions to education. This paper documents an unintendednegative effect of such programs. Using data from a randomized experiment thatprovides free uniforms to primary school children in Ecuador, we find that the interventionhas a significantly negative impact on attendance. An explanation is thatparents who pay for their children’s uniforms (the control group) feel more committedto the school than parents who got the uniforms for free (the treated) andtherefore encourage their children to attend school. Consistent with this sunk costeffect, we find that the impact is largest shortly after the purchase of the uniform,and during the end-of-year exam period when more is at stake.

In the aftermath of violent conflict, governments have an opportunity to address fundamental inequalities between internal groups. As taxation and expenditure policies are developed to rebuild a functional domestic economy and infrastructure, policies can be designed to lessen divisions and promote equity.The authors assert that good data about the status quo on inequality in a country is the first step to addressing it through policy. They then discuss some options for formulating a tax code that addresses distributional issues and increases progressivity. Expenditure planning can also be designed to help create equity in income and non-income resources, such as public services, employment, health and education. The role of aid donors is discussed, particularly as a source of successful strategies gleaned from other post-conflict countries.This study is part of a series on Public Finance in Post-Conflict Environments, published jointly by PERI and New York University's Center on International Cooperation.

Surprisingly little is known about the impact of natural resource booms on income inequality in resource rich countries (Ross, 2007). This paper develops a theory, in the context of a two sector growth model in which learning-by-doing drives growth, to explain the time path of inequality following a resource boom. Under the condition that the nontraded sector uses unskilled labor more intensively than the traded sector, we find that income inequality will fall in the short run immediately after a boom, and will then increase steadily over time as the economy grows, until the initial impact of the boom on inequality disappears. Using dynamic panel data estimation for 90 countries between 1965 and 1999, and exploiting variation in world commodity prices to identify resource booms, we find evidence in support of the theory, especially for oil and mineral booms. We also find that uncertainty about future commodity export prices significantly increases long-run inequality.

Development is often taken to mean rising incomes. Discussions of the “goals of development” now often emphasize the reduction of poverty, rather than raising average incomes per se. The role of social services—particularly basic health and education—has also received greater emphasis in the 1980s, viewed mainly as instruments for raising the incomes of the poor. But, in all these approaches, income growth of one sort or another is what development is all about. A rather different view of the meaning of development has recently found expression in the 1990 Human Development Report (HRD) produced by the United Nations Development Programme. A conceptual underpinning for this approach can be found in the work of Amartya Sen. The essence of this view is that human development—what people can actually do and be—is the overriding purpose of economic development. Underdevelopment is viewed as the lack of certain basic capabilities, rather than lack of income per se. We do not aim here to advocate one of these approaches over the other, but rather to explore their implications for development policy. For instance, what does the human development approach imply about the role of economic growth and, in particular, about reducing income poverty? Should development priorities shift toward the provision of public services in poor countries, even if such a shift is at the expense of income growth?

We develop a model of endogenous skill-biased technical change in developing countries. The model reconciles wildly dispersed existing estimates of the elasticity of substitution between more and less educated workers. It also produces an estimating equation for the elasticity, which allow us to produce overdue estimates for developing countries. With four types of data, elasticity estimates for developing countries are consistently about 2. In a skill-biased technical change framework, this estimate makes sense of what appears to be little or no correlation between relative skill supply and wage inequality.

Working away from home might bring higher earnings than working near home. However, the absence of parents due to work can have unexpected effects on children. This paper examines the effects of the temporary absence of parents on the well-being of children aged between 5 and 8 years old in Vietnam, using indicators of household poverty, per capita consumption expenditure, and children’s time allocation. The paper relies on OLS and fixed-effects regression and panel data from the Young Lives surveys in 2007 and 2009. It finds a positive correlation between parental absence and per capita expenditure. Parental absence tends to increase per capita expenditure on food rather than non-food expenditure. Regarding the way children spend their time, there are no statistically significant effects of parental absence.

Measurements of child poverty are commonly carried out using household expenditure data in per capita terms or adjusted by some standard parameter of economies of size. In this paper, we use adult equivalence scales and economies of scale coefficients estimated from the data to assess child poverty in Vietnam. By doing so, we show child poverty in Vietnam to be overestimated by conventional techniques. The commonly used technique for the estimation of adult equivalence scales contains an implicit household income distribution. Therefore, we used these techniques to estimate child poverty and patterns of resource allocation for different household groups. Better-off families (which are largely urban, more educated, female-headed and from the Khin ethnic majority) spend a lower share of their income on children than other household groups, though their children are still better off in absolute terms. A comparison of the data between 1992-93 and 1997-98 also reveals that children from better-off family groups have experienced a more rapid increase in welfare levels than children from other sectors of Vietnamese society during this period. The presence of gender discrimination in child treatment is also investigated. Rural and male headed households are those that more prominently appear as discriminating against female children. We found no clear relationship between gender discrimination and expenditure or between gender discrimination and level of education.

Using detailed survey data from Nepal, this paper examines the determinants of child labor with a special emphasis on urban proximity. We find that children residing in or near urban centers attend school more and work less in total but are more likely to be involved in wage work or in a small business. The larger the urban center, the stronger the effect is. Urban proximity is found to reduce the workload of children and improve school attendance up to 3 hours of travel time from the city. In areas of commercialized agriculture located 3 to 7 hours from the city, children do more farm work. Urban proximity effects are accounted for by a combination of local labor supply and demand conditions, most notably the local importance of agriculture, the education level of the parents, and the local wage rate. Child servants, which represent a small proportion of all children, work much harder than other children and appear particularly at risk.

We introduce two separate datasets [The Global Consumption Dataset (GCD) and The Global Income Dataset (GID)] making possible an unprecedented portrait of consumption and income of persons over time, within and across countries, around the world. The current benchmark version of the dataset presents estimates of monthly real consumption and income for every percentile of the population (a “consumption/income profile”) for more than 160 countries and more than half a century (1960–2015). We describe the construction of the datasets and demonstrate possible uses by presenting some sample results concerning the distribution of consumption, poverty and inequality in the world.

This study examines the impact of agrarian structures on income inequality over the long run. First, it exhibits the relationship between land and income distribution by developing a theoretical model based on Harris and Todaro (1970) and Lewis (1954). High land inequality increases income Gini coefficients in the urban sector as well as the rural sector, not only by creating congestion in the urban subsistence sector, but also by feeding the growth of the urban reserve army of labor, which pulls down the wages in the urban capitalist sector.\ud \ud Next, the study investigates the empirical relationship between land inequality, level of urbanization and income inequality using cross country datasets. The estimation results support the theoretical model and indicate that the level of land inequality has a significant impact on determining the level of urbanization, and urban and overall income inequalities. Moreover, the analysis finds that overurbanization increases income inequality. The empirical analysis controls for institutional factors like education inequality and the level of democracy. The results present a stronger evidence on the land inequality’s influence through urbanization than through education and democracy.\ud \ud These results suggest that policymakers should have a broader view as to the importance of agrarian policies. A progressive land reform or/and subsidies protecting small peasantry can also reduce urban income inequality and poverty over the long run.

This paper models how migration both influences and responds to differences in disease prevalence between cities, regions and countries, and show how the possibility of migration away from high-prevalence areas affects long-run steady state disease prevalence. We develop a dynamic framework where both migration and prevention behaviour respond to the prevalence of disease, to the costs of migration and of treatment, and to current and anticipated health regulations. The model treats disease prevalence as an endogenous consequence of other features of the areas concerned, notably their economic endowments. It explores how pressure for migration in response to differing equilibrium levels of disease prevalence causes countervailing differences in city characteristics, notably in land rents. Competition for scarce housing in low-prevalence areas can create pressures for segregation, with disease concentrated in high-prevalence "sinks". We show that multiple steady states may exist and explore their comparative static properties. In particular we find that migration can have positive health benefits, in that reductions in barriers to migration can reduce steady-state disease incidence in low-prevalence areas while having no impact on prevalence in high-prevalence areas. This may have important consequences for policy; in some circumstances, public health measures may need to avoid discouraging migration away from high-disease areas.

Expanding access to preschool education is a particularly important policy issue in developing countries, where enrollment rates are generally much lower, and where private institutions constitute a much larger share of the formal preschool sector, than in developed countries. This paper examines if an expansion in the supply of public preschool crowds-out private enrollment using rich data for municipalities in Brazil from 2000 to 2006, where federal transfers to local governments change discontinuously with given population thresholds. Results from a regression-discontinuity design reveal that larger federal transfers lead to a significant expansion of local public preschool services, but show no evidence of crowding-out of private enrollment, nor of negative impacts on the quality of private providers. This finding is consistent with a theory in which households differ in willingness-to-pay for preschool services, and private suppliers optimally adjust prices in response to an expansion of lower-quality, free-of-charge public supply. In the context of the model, the absence of crowding-out effects of more public preschool providers can be rationalized by the existence of relatively large differences in willingness-to-pay for preschool services across different demand segments. Our theoretical and empirical findings therefore suggest that in developing country settings characterized by relatively high income inequality, an expansion in public preschool supply will likely significantly increase enrollment among the poorest segments of society, and need not have adverse effects on the quantity or quality of local private supply., We thank three anonymous referees for very helpful comments and suggestions. Odd Rune Straume acknowledges the financial support provided by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Operational Program Factors of Competitiveness (COMPETE); and by national funds received through the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the research grant PEst-C/EGE/UI3182/2013. Research for this paper has been supported in part by the World Bank's Multidonor Trust Fund for Trade and Development and through the Strategic Research Program on Economic Development. The views expressed herein are those of the authors only, and not those of the World Bank Group. Final revision accepted: October 2, 2015.

Public administration selects its servants exclusively on competence criteria (the so-called merit system). The selection of civil servants is performed by contest, organized within the limit of vacant public positions provided annually for this purpose, by the plan for occupation of public positions. As a general rule, the contest is organized on a quarterly basis. Any individual who meets the general conditions provided by law and the specific conditions established by law for occupying a certain public position may participate at the selection contest organized for the occupation of a public position. Among other aspects, in this study we underline an inconsistency regarding the recruitment defined in the field of Human Resources Management and its definition from The Statute of the Civil Servants.

The development of human resources that finds an important practical application in enterprises from the developed world, account facts which refer to the conclusion that satisfaction of employee can greatly contribute to increasing productivity in enterprises and in states from whole world. Enterprises should assume appropriate measures which will be concentrated on reviewing the toolkit related to management staff, especially systems of payment and organization culture if they want to avoid negative consequences caused by dissatisfaction of employees in the workplace.

The human development index (HDI) is a measure of development which allows countries' development to be assessed on the basis of three indicators that measure the health, education, and standard of living of the population. The UNDP also computes a human development index that excludes this last indicator, the non-income HDI. The HDI, like the non-income HDI, presents some striking inter-country disparities. In this study, we wish to demonstrate that inefficiency in the utilization of financial resources can have an incidence on non-income HDI scores. Thus, owing to a certain "waste" in their use of resources, countries with similar levels of spending may end up with differing levels of human development. We measure this efficiency using the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method