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The aim of this note is to present a brief approach of the national languages in Mauritania based on a literature review which shows how ethnic tensions have been at the heart of the country's linguistic and educational policy: an issue still relevant today. For this purpose, the status of Mauritanian languages in relation to other neighboring countries is first presented. Secondly, the sociolinguistic situation in Mauritania is discussed, underlining a diversity of linguistic and social practices. A third point addresses the historical overview of the linguistic and educational reforms of the country (which have always focused on Arabic and French downsizing national languages such as Pulaar, Wolof and Soninké) is given. Finally, the dynamism and the complexity of linguistic practices in Mauritania, as well as their social significance, are highlighted, a reality that is not always reflected in the linguistic policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North Caucasian region is called the Russian Babylon due to its polyethnicity, multilingualism, religious syncretism, ancient mountain ethical codes coexisting along with state institutions of self-organization. Compared to other locales, it still manages to preserve many archaic forms of socio-normative and spiritual culture, although here, too, the first signs of a systemic crisis due to globalization processes are already visible. According to the articles presented in this journal issue, one can judge the current state and prospects for the development of the national languages and literatures of the Abkhaz, Balkars, Dagestanis, Kabardians, Karachays, Chechens, South and North Ossetians. Philosophers, literary scholars, folklorists, linguists raise and try to solve many urgent problems related to oral folk art, the status of the Russian language in the region, mass and literary bilingualism, the quality of literary translation, ethno-gender stereotypes, intertextuality mechanisms, as well as the possibility of using digital technologies in modern philological research.

Superdiversity is a key term that has taken hold in macro sociolinguistic commentary over the last decade. It has been used to explore the increasing linguistic diversity, particularly in major urban centres in the West, brought about by changing patterns of migration and transmigration. Within sociolinguistics, this has led to an increasing focus on the complex multilingualism that can now be found in diverse urban contexts. The focus on multilingualism that superdiversity brings is a welcome, albeit belated, recognition of the normalcy of mutilingualism, thus challenging the inherent monolingualism still underpinning much language policy, pedagogy, and practice. However, the rise of superdiversity as a theoretical framework has also led to an increasingly deconstructivist view of languages by its proponents – questioning and/or rejecting distinctions between so called named languages, particularly national languages, while also critiquing standard language registers. In this commentary, I outline the benefits that superdiversity has brought to sociolinguistics over the last decade but also highlight, and critique, its explanatory limits. The latter include, among others, its ahistoricity, its almost exclusive focus on migrants in urban contexts, its dimissal of non-urban, often Indigenous, language contexts, and its rejection of language rights and standard language varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes an innovative bilingual education program developed and implemented in 208 primary classes in Senegal from 2009 to 2018 by a Senegalese NGO working with the national Ministry of Education to address issues of quality in primary education. L'approche simultanée or simultaneous approach, also known as bilinguisme en temps réel or real-time bilingualism, developed organically through a consultative process between NGO development actors, university linguists and educators. Unlike the early-exit transitional bilingual programs previously piloted in Senegal that are common throughout West Africa, this program taught literacy, mathematics and the sciences in both a national language (Wolof or Pulaar) and French from the first year of primary school. Using data collected for an external evaluation conducted in 2018, along with follow-up research conducted in 2019 with designers and implementers of the simultaneous approach, this paper analyzes the effectiveness of the program and its implications for Senegal, where the Ministry of Education appears close to adopting a national language-in-education policy. There are also implications for the field of L1-based multilingual education, as ARED's simultaneous approach provides a refreshing new perspective on teaching and learning non-dominant and dominant languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The language used in school represents a crucial and polemic question in multilingual societies. Sub-Saharan Africa represents a world region with a significant linguistic diversity. Until recently, most of these countries were European colonies. During colonial times, the colonizer language generally dominated in schools. After their independence, many countries have continued using that language as the instructional language. It is observed that quite often, children are schooled in a second language, and teachers must teach in a foreign language. This situation results in potentially negative consequences affecting school learning. The specific example of Ghana is examined. It is pointed out that in Ghana during recent years frequent changes have been introduced in school language. Commonly, English is used as the primary school language. Because this association between language and school learning, speaking English provides not only significant social prestige, but also results in better working opportunities. The question of so-called “international schools” in Ghana is also examined; most of these schools do not teach any of the Ghanaian languages, but a foreign language, such as French, Spanish, or Portuguese. It is argued that these international schools may have adverse consequences on Ghanaian children who attend them. Ghana, however, has been a strong advocate of the so-called “African personality” and the use of English as the medium of instruction is in overt opposition to this ideology. It is concluded that children schooled in a second language, and teachers teaching in language that they do not master well enough may represent a potential barrier for the social, scientific, and economic development of sub-Saharan African countries, such as Ghana.

This article deals with the issue of the evolution of literacy in African national languages. It is about the existence/non existence of local literacy systems in black Africa. Findings show that there exist ancient unknown or neglected hieroglyphics which have been hidden by foreign languages. The history of literacy in national languages is a process that cannot be separated from the cultural and sociopolitical context which is not only related to latin characters borrowed from the colonizer. Black South Sahara Africa has also known a literacy system in national language based on a borrowal of Arabic characters.

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Expanding on the contemporary lines of thought about the precarious situation of Africa and her youth, and based on linguistic, sociolinguistic and didactic facts, this papers postulates that the command of quality French is an essential component for the development of the French-speaking African youth and even the Francophone world, as French is definitely a language of science and technology; a window on modernity. Based on the Cameroon case study, this article came to the conclusion that if decision-makers fail to take appropriate actions against the ongoing distortion of the French language, Cameroon youth will continue its inexorable journey toward (social, political, economic).

The article is devoted to the study of the languages of indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East living in the Russian Federation. An accent is made on the identity of national languages in terms of the destruction of the traditionalnomadic way of life, a breach of centuries-old family relations.

Between November 2018 and 2020, residents of New Caledonia will have three opportunities to vote on whether to become an independent state. Residents of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville will vote on the same issue in June 2019. Should the residents of either territory vote for independence, the issue of whether a language shall be designated the national and / or official language for the new state will arise. If the decision is to designate a language for the new state, the choice of which language will also surface. This chapter considers the language choices made by a number of countries across the linguistically diverse Asia Pacific region post-independence and in so doing, provides some models for the language configurations which may eventuate should either territory become independent. The linguistic configurations discussed here are divided into Category 1 - countries where a national and / or official language are legally specified or have de jure legal status. - and Category 2 – countries where no language is legally named but at least one language may be de facto national or official. Examples of Category 1 countries include Indonesia where Bahasa Indonesia is the only de jure national and official language and Vanuatu where Bislama is the de jure national language and is also a de jure co-official language with both English and French, the languages of the former colonial powers. Examples of Category 2 countries discussed here include Papua New Guinea where Tok Pisin is named as one of the possible languages needed for an applicant to become a Papua New Guinean citizen but does not have de jure national language status and the Solomon Islands where Pijin is the de facto national language and English is the de facto official language. Whilst the results of either the Bougainville and New Caledonian referenda are not clear, the different configurations already in place serve as a pointer to what may eventuate should the residents of either territory vote for independence.

As a significant factor in social relationships, language attitudes of students are important to explore when building a school culture of tolerance. This study examines the language attitudes of university students from Turkey towards Cypriot Turkish (CT) and Standard Turkish. A mixed methods approach was adopted where 94 Turkish university students studying in the northern part of Cyprus where the two varieties are spoken, responded to a questionnaire in the first phase. The results of the analysis of this survey showed that the participants had somewhat negative attitudes towards CT. In the second phase of the study, where three focus groups were conducted, the findings of the first phase were confirmed. Intertwined with discourses of class, the participants specifically referred to "correctness" and "intelligibility" as important issues for their evaluations of CT and its speakers. CT was also perceived as an important marker of Turkish Cypriotness by the participants and was projected to be lower than any other variety of Turkish spoken in Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper was raised as support to the rescue of the indigenous language called hñähñu (Otomí) existing in Mexico, in order to further develop the learning of this language in children's basic level, providing a teaching tool different from usual that children interact. The UNESCO marks that the countries should cultivate three languages: a native or local, in this case is hñähñu, or a national which is the Spanish, and the third is the implementation with another international language (English). The intelligent tutor system via web based on Joomla and PHP programming for learning the hñähñu or Otomí to the new generations and thus rescue the language from extinction. This research originates from an extensive and exhaustive collection of information from different bibliographic sources until the construction of intelligent tutoring system. The research work is designed to teach the basis of the Otomi language which is focused on the children of basic level in the region of the Mezquital Valley which is located in the State of Hidalgo, Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

History of Church service in national languages is studied within the article. The author shows it’s developement in the early Christianity, however, brought to a close within Catholic latinatisation and revealed through Reformation. Peculiar attention is paid to Luther’s views on the subject. The example of the Lutheran Church has led to change in Catholic attitude to the use of national languages and might cause changes in the Ortodox tradition.

This article describes the structures of the three Nigerian national languages at the morphophonological level with a view to showing the aspects of convergence and divergence in them. This will help determine the possibility of evolving a pocket of pronounceable words, as a stepping stone towards a national language formed from the three languages to foster national unity like wá, zó and bìá, meaning 'come' in Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo respectively as widely suggested. Using descriptive analysis of data collected from Hausa and Igbo students at the National Institute for Nigerian Languages, we discovered that coinage is easier between Igbo and Yoruba (Niger-Congo/Kwa) than it is between these two languages and Hausa (Chadic). This article suggests the use of Nigerian Pidgin English (a natural language) which is English-based with widest acceptability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The title of this new journal provides opportunity to review the many contexts which need to be taken into account in reflecting upon foreign language teaching. These contexts include the educational, the fact that much language teaching takes place within general educational and often compulsory educational settings and institutions. Learners thus encounter foreign languages alongside other languages – their language of the home, the official language of the country, languages of minorities and others – and this needs to be part of the thinking about learning and teaching. Furthermore, since language is the tool for learning throughout life and especially in educational institutions, where the languages of other subjects are languages in themselves which learners have to learn if they are to be successful in education, teachers of all subjects need to be aware of language as the tool of learning. Yet another issue is the relationship of language teaching with citizenship education and the development of ‘intercultural citizenship’. The title of the journal also refers to ‘research’ and here too there is potential for reflection on the modes and paradigms of research which are relevant to investigating language teaching and learning. Distinctions of quantitative and qualitative research are misleading and need to be reviewed. The higher order distinctions are between research which seeks explanation, that which seeks understanding and that which involves advocacy.

A major characteristic of Cameroon's language policy during the colonial era as well as during the first four decades of the postcolonial era, is discrimination against all indigenous Cameroonian languages. This began when German was introduced after the arrival of the first colonisers in 1844 and lasted until the end of the First World War, after which the policy was continued by the French (in eastern Cameroon) and the English colonial administrators (in western Cameroon). Even after Independence in 1960, this policy was perpetuated and defended, now by the Cameroonian government who fostered so-called "Official Bilingualism", a policy securing the development of French and English as languages of education, and of administration and general public use in the entire country. The first attempt to put an end to this aspect of colonial policy occurred in 1996. Since then, a lot has been done to overcome and correct the policy of banishment of local languages, so that the Cameroonian languages are now being introduced into the educational system.

According to the 2006 national census 71,06% of Burkina Faso’s estimated 14 million inhabitants are functionally illiterate. This staggering number is referred to in explaining the slow social, economical and political development of the country; it is also linked to the high incidence of poverty in Burkina Faso. The government is aware of these connections between literacy and social circumstances and thus is determined to combat poverty through a literacy campaign. This article describes some of theseattempts and critically reflects on the importance of the mastery of literacy in national languages, linking this also to the teaching and learning of foreign languages.

Abstract: I begin this opinion piece by defining the two main sets of scientific publications, viz., mainstream/center journals and peripheral/small ones. I then analyze why multilingual peripheral scholars choose to publish their research results in English-medium journals and why they also often choose to publish them in domestic journals written in national languages. Because of the existing highly competitive journal publishing environment, I present a few measures that could be undertaken to allow multilingual peripheral researchers to increase their influence as global partners in the world of science. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Senegal has a complex multilingual set-up where there is interaction between 25 distinct indigenous languages and French, the language of the former colonial power. Throughout colonial rule the French language was imposed and the indigenous languages were marginalised and stigmatised. When Senegal gained independence from France, the postcolonial authorities who took over power were not able to redress the situation and promote their own languages. As a result, more than half a century after independence, the national languages of Senegal are conspicuously absent from the education system. French continues to rule the entire education system: it is the only medium of instruction and is a compulsory school subject. However, pressures from within and outside the country have had favourable echoes and efforts have been undertaken by successive governments to raise the profile of the national languages, but these remain insignificant. This article reports on an analysis of personal narratives in support of mother-tongue education. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article presents an overview of language-in-education policy development between 1999 and 2010 in the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. In the decade since independence language-in-education policy in this newly independent country has been dominated by debates about the medium of instruction. Over time, policy has shifted from an authoritarian stance that insisted on monolingual, submersion schooling in a former colonial language to one that accepts the need to accommodate linguistic diversity in order to promote social inclusion. Recent policy documents allow for instruction in the vernacular languages, designated in the 2002 Constitution as national languages. The article identifies some key drivers that have provided impetus for this change in orientation, a change which offers opportunities for localised language planning from below. The paper therefore suggests that the acceptance of agency at both macro- and micro-levels will play a critical role in sustaining and maintaining the national languages in East Timorese education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guinea-Conakry, West Africa, was one of the only countries of sub-Saharan Africa to reject the colonial language along with colonial rule, at least in basic education. Under its first president, Séékou Touréé, Guinea adopted eight major national languages as media of instruction for primary and middle school levels. Language emancipation through education was part of Touréé's platform of combining a socialist economy and nationalist ideology. Unfortunately, education in national languages did not survive past Touréé's administration but died with him in 1984. Since then, the entire schooling system has depended solely on French, a language that very few Guineans speak at home. Meanwhile, national languages have continued to play a role in other domains, and in current educational, linguistic and political circles there is talk of bringing these languages back into formal education. Using data gathered from various documentary sources, combined with a synthesis of our interviews and discussions with teachers, literacy facilitators, education authorities, linguists and decision makers, this paper discusses the potential for Guinean languages to be re-emancipated in official policy and national practice. We also describe the approach of one NGO to support this re-emancipation through experimental schooling in Soso, one of Guinea's three most widely spoken languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germany and Australia are examples of countries characterised by a tension between their plurilingual populations and their monolingual mindsets. This paper sets out to make a comparison between policy and practice in language and education in Germany and Australia, first outlining the link between the nineteenth-century development of the ideology of the nation-state and beliefs in the importance of a single language as a key feature of a strong nation. We use Gogolin's notion of a language hierarchy to illustrate the status and position of different categories of language in each country. Hence, we begin by interrogating the concept of a national language in each site, and then secondly we look at policy, practices and attitudes to foreign languages, characterised as those taught as subjects in schools. The third and most problematic position on the hierarchy is that of languages of the community. In Germany, these are autochthonous minority languages, immigrant languages and immigrant ethnolects. In Australia, they are Indigenous languages and Kriols, Aboriginal English, immigrant languages and immigrant ethnolects. This paper then discusses the positive and negative aspects of each country's language policy. We argue that by analysing how unexamined monolingual perspectives are played out in very different contexts, we can contribute to more enlightened thinking about the plurilingual potential of nations with multilingual populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The function of the public service broadcasting company Sveriges Television (Swedish Television) as a component of the Swedish ecology of language planning and policy is examined. Analysis of recent policy documents as well as data about television programming illuminates how television serves as a language planning mechanism. It is shown that television is explicitly framed as a tool for status planning through regulations about the relative positions of different languages in this domain. The management of content in Swedish, national minority languages, and other languages, in turn, suggests that Sveriges Television is also implicitly engaged in discourse planning that (re)produces the current linguistic hierarchy in Sweden through the representation of multilingualism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Senegal is a multicultural and multilingual country where the population is estimated in 2007 to 11,519,226 inhabitants in an area of 196,712 km2. The study of existing multilingualism in Senegal and inter linguistic relationships informs us about the opinions of speakers regarding their language(s), also concerning language policies and language planning initiatives. The relationship between multilingualism and its impact in the socioeconomic and cultural life, language policies as a form of discourse in relation to different politico-administrative measures advocated since the country's independence and their implications deserve thoughtful reflection. If we look into the obstacles to the practical implementation of language policies, we realize the inconsistencies, the lack of audacity, and firmness of these language policies. Large gaps between words and deeds are known and result in adverse consequences for economic, social, and cultural development and revitalization of spoken languages by ethnic minorities. In this article we want to focus on three points; after giving an outline of the ethno-linguistic situation, the language policy of Senegal and their foundations, we will analyze the impact of these language policies on languages and cultures of Senegal and especially on minority languages and cultures and their impact on the countries development. We'll also discuss a case study of endangered language: the Mënik1, minority language spoken in Eastern Senegal that we are currently documenting. This will allow us to identify some solutions and prospects for the improvement of endangered languages in Senegal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Timor-Leste celebrated its formal political independence on 20th May 2002. The National Constitution of the new nation declared the endogenous lingua franca (Tetum) and the former colonial language (Portuguese) to be co-official. The remaining local languages were given the status of national languages. Indonesian and English were designated as working languages 'for as long as is deemed necessary'. In this monograph, I consider the origins and implications of these constitutional provisions. The paper consists of five parts. A social and economic profile of the polity. This section also discusses migration, communications and the media in relation to language policy and practice. A language profile of the country, followed by a discussion of diglossia, multilingualism, literacy and official language choice. An account of the sociolinguistic consequences of language contact and an historical analysis of social policies and practices that have shaped the habitus. A discussion and analysis of current language policy development in terms of goals, motives and orientations. An assessment of the prospects for language maintenance with special reference to policy outcomes and options. I advocate a rights-oriented approach to language management, arguing that in the absence of such an approach, ad hoc power relationships between languages will continue to dominate social discourse and language politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This monograph provides an overview of the language situation in the three Baltic countries: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. It examines the recent change in language regimes that the Baltic States have deliberately brought about since the restitution of their independence, the nature of these changes, the opposition they have engendered and the linguistic, political and social consequences of these policies, both locally and internationally. First, an overview is provided on the historical background to contextualise and present language policy issues in the Baltic. Then attempts to overturn major aspects of Soviet language policy and to re-institute the national language are highlighted. Aspects of the current language situation covered include a special focus on bilingual and multilingual language use in the Baltic multiethnic settings. Detailed attention is also paid to language provision in the diverging educational settings, as well as to methods of assessment. This is followed by a discussion of attitudes to language use, standardisation, testing, languages and language variants. In conclusion the scholarly treatment of Baltic language policy issues is examined, concluding with an evaluation of the contribution of the Baltic States to our overall understandings of language policy and its complexities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Swiss multilingualism has been suggested as a model for a unified Europe. In this country, the territoriality principle and political subsidiarity have supported a discourse on multilingualism for the purpose of 'mutual understanding". However, a conflict has recently upset the cohabitation of four national languages in Switzerland, resulting partly from conflicting responses to the spread of English in Swiss society. This paper discusses the struggle around the weighting of national languages versus English in educational language policy. The dominant discourse on multilingualism has been confronted with a globalising ideology, where competence in English is seen as a commodity to be acquired early. An economically powerful canton, Zurich, introduced English as a first additional language in primary school in 1998, triggering what has come to be known as Sprachenstreit, or 'language strife'. An apparent compromise may not be stable as language issues have now been subjected to a referendum. The implications of the Swiss case are discussed in the light of European language policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]