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The paper examines the French proposal to establish a EU-wide border tax adjustment for CO2 emissions. The tax seeks to offset competitive distortions toward European industries which incur the cost of the Kyoto Protocol and to prompt European competitors to join the Kyoto Protocol. So far, the debate has chiefly focused on the compatibility of such a border tax adjustment with the rules of the multilateral trading system of the World Trade Organization. Without auguring how a dispute would eventually be settled within the WTO framework, the paper argues that the implementation of a border tax adjustment is not as much an issue of technical feasibility or compatibility with the multilateral trading system, as a matter of collective determination to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The French proposal is a yardstick for climate policy after the expiration of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012. The paper looks in more details into the core directions of pending negotiations., L'article analyse la faisabilité de la taxe carbone aux frontières de l'Europe proposée par le Gouvernement français. L'objectif est d'éviter les distorsions de concurrence à l'encontre des industries européennes qui subissent le coût du Protocole de Kyoto et d'inciter les grands concurrents de l'Europe à rejoindre celui-ci. Les positions jusque-là exprimées divergent principalement sur la compatibilité d'une telle taxe avec les règles de l'OMC. Sans présager de l'issue d'une action devant son Organe de règlement des différends, l'article considère que le problème se situe moins dans la faisabilité technique ou les règles du commerce multilatéral que dans la détermination collective à diminuer drastiquement les émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Le projet français est donc un test des volontés politiques en matière de politique climatique après l'échéance du Protocole de Kyoto en 2012. L'article analyse les grandes orientations des prochaines négociations.

Summary Introduction The international ICALIC initiative aims at developing a new indirect calorimeter according to the needs of the clinicians and researchers in the field of clinical nutrition and metabolism. The project initially focuses on validating the calorimeter for use in mechanically ventilated acutely ill adult patient. However, standard methods to validate the accuracy of calorimeters have not yet been established. This paper describes the procedures for the in-vitro tests to validate the accuracy of the new indirect calorimeter, and defines the ranges for the parameters to be evaluated in each test to optimize the validation for clinical and research calorimetry measurements. Methods Two in-vitro tests have been defined to validate the accuracy of the gas analyzers and the overall function of the new calorimeter. 1) Gas composition analysis allows validating the accuracy of O2 and CO2 analyzers. Reference gas of known O2 (or CO2) concentration is diluted by pure nitrogen gas to achieve predefined O2 (or CO2) concentration, to be measured by the indirect calorimeter. O2 and CO2 concentrations to be tested were determined according to their expected ranges of concentrations during calorimetry measurements. 2) Gas exchange simulator analysis validates O2 consumption (VO2) and CO2 production (VCO2) measurements. CO2 gas injection into artificial breath gas provided by the mechanical ventilator simulates VCO2. Resulting dilution of O2 concentration in the expiratory air is analyzed by the calorimeter as VO2. CO2 gas of identical concentration to the fraction of inspired O2 (FiO2) is used to simulate identical VO2 and VCO2. Indirect calorimetry results from publications were analyzed to determine the VO2 and VCO2 values to be tested for the validation. Results O2 concentration in respiratory air is highest at inspiration, and can decrease to 15% during expiration. CO2 concentration can be as high as 5% in expired air. To validate analyzers for measurements of FiO2 up to 70%, ranges of O2 and CO2 concentrations to be tested were defined as 15–70% and 0.5–5.0%, respectively. The mean VO2 in 426 adult mechanically ventilated patients was 270 ml/min, with 2 standard deviation (SD) ranges of 150–391 ml/min. Thus, VO2 and VCO2 to be simulated for the validation were defined as 150, 250, and 400 ml/min. Conclusion The procedures for the in-vitro tests of the new indirect calorimeter and the ranges for the parameters to be evaluated in each test have been defined to optimize the validation of accuracy for clinical and research indirect calorimetry measurements. The combined methods will be used to validate the accuracy of the new indirect calorimeter developed by the ICALIC initiative, and should become the standard method to validate the accuracy of any future indirect calorimeters.

ambient temperature in the range of −15–12 °C according to the standard UNI EN 14511/2011. The results show the possibility to reach an optimum of the COP by varying the ejector area, once the other parameters are fixed, as a consequence of the ejector regulation on the pressures at the inlet and outlet of the compressor. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and IIR, compressor frequency in the range of 30–60 Hz, Carbon dioxide is becoming an interesting option also for HVAC heating appliances due to its eco-friendly characteristics. The incurrence of transcritical cycles makes the use of ejectors attractive to improve performance. Part load conditions and varied ambient temperatures imply the use of variable geometry systems of appropriate design to keep their efficiency high. This paper investigates experimentally a multi-ejector air-to-water CO2 heat pump for heating needs, measuring the performance of the system and of each component under partial and full load conditions. A sensitivity analysis was run varying, separately or in a combined way, the following parameters or operating conditions: ejector area ratio in a range of 33.1–86.6%

La technologie de captage et de stockage du CO2 regroupe plusieurs techniques industrielles visant à séparer (captage) le dioxyde de carbone de ses sources industrielles et énergétiques, à le transporter vers un lieu de stockage et à l’isoler de l’atmosphère sur le long terme. Cette technologie a été imaginée au cours des années 1970 par des chercheurs et des industriels et faite de quelques applications dans le monde. La dernière décennie a consacré l’émergence d’une politique du CCS dans l’Union Européenne. La Commission européenne s’est engagée, en partenariat avec des acteurs industriels, dans une démarche de « démonstration » du CCS, articulée autour du développement de 10 démonstrateurs à grande échelle d’ici à 2015. Ce processus a été jalonné d’intenses débats et de conflits locaux, notamment en ce qui concerne les risques liés aux fuites de CO2 à court terme (acidification de milieux de surface ou de nappes souterraines) ou à long terme (manque d’efficacité dans la lutte contre le changement climatique). Ces débats ont aussi porté sur le coût élevé et la pertinence (technologie « bout de chaîne ») de l’option CCS par rapport à des actions de maîtrise de la demande d’énergie ou au développement d’énergies non carbonées. Notre article analyse l’articulation entre démonstration et définition du risque en retraçant, au fil de l’émergence de la politique européenne du CCS et de sa constitution en « politique de démonstration », les modalités au travers desquelles les protagonistes de ce processus mobilisent des cadres normatifs, stabilisés ou émergents, sur les risques., Carbon capture and storage (CCS) combines several techniques in order to capture carbon dioxide emitted by industrial and energy production processes, transport it and store it in geological reservoirs, so as to isolate it from the atmosphere for long time periods. This technology was invented in the 1970s by researchers and industrialists. A few industrial projects applying CCS are today in different parts of the world. In the EU, a CCS policy emerged during the last decade. The European Commission, in partnership with industry players, has committed to a process of CCS "demonstration", aiming to develop 10 large-scale demonstrators by 2015. The emergence of EU CCS policy was marked by intense debates and local conflicts, especially with regard to the risks associated with potential leakages of CO2 in the short term (acidification of surface media or groundwater) or in the long term (CCS claimed to be ineffective in the fight against climate change). These discussions have also addressed the high cost and the relevance (end-of-pipe technology) of the CCS option in comparison with other CO2 mitigation options (reduction in energy demand, development of low-carbon energy technologies). This paper analyzes the relationship between CCS demonstration and the definition of the associated risks, by looking at the way in which protagonists involved in the CCS policy process resort to normative, stabilized or emerging risk frameworks.