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Development of wind generation is a mean towards global warming reduction. However, in some parts of the electrical grid, the massive integration of renewable generation can lead to congestion problems. These congestions are related to the impossibility for the power grid to transport the generation. Nowadays, congestion management methods are based on day(s)-ahead computation of generation restriction which leads to important production losses for renewables. Based on this context, it’s therefore important to develop a methodology which is optimal, reliable and non-discriminatory for renewable.In this work, the proposed congestion management method is based on corrective actions. These actions are computed in real-time using regulation loops and Petri net-based algorithms. A stability study proved that gain margins are sufficient to assure the stability of the corrective actions. The algorithm allows an optimal selection of the generators than will participate in the congestion management. This selection is based on their cost and efficiency for congestion alleviation. Simulation results using the software EUROSTAG have shown the efficiency of the method and its adaptability to different generator types. Furthermore, general conclusions on congestions costs according to different regulations on the renewable generation were obtained; Le développement de la production éolienne permet de satisfaire les objectifs de lutte contre le réchauffement climatique. Cependant, dans certaines zones du réseau électrique, l’intégration d’un volume important de production peut créer des congestions qui traduisent l'incapacité du réseau à évacuer cette production. Les méthodes actuelles pour gérer les congestions sont basées sur des calculs prévisionnels de restrictions de production qui peuvent entrainer des pertes de production importantes pour le renouvelable. Cependant, dans le cadre d’un développement important du renouvelable, il est nécessaire de définir une méthodologie de gestion des congestions fiable, optimale du point de vue économique et non discriminatoire pour la production renouvelable.Dans le cadre de cette thèse, la méthodologie de gestion des congestions locales proposée repose sur l’usage d’un contrôle correctif. Le contrôle correctif est basé sur une boucle de régulation et un algorithme utilisant les réseaux de Petri. Une étude de stabilité de la boucle de régulation a montré que les marges de stabilité dépendantes des gains composant la boucle sont suffisantes. L’algorithme permet de définir les groupes de production à choisir pour la gestion des congestions en considérant leur coût d’utilisation et leur impact sur la congestion. Les essais, effectués sous le logiciel EUROSTAG, ont montré la pertinence de la méthodologie proposée et sa capacité à s’adapter à l’insertion des moyens de production. De plus, des conclusions générales sur les différents coûts associés à la gestion des congestions en fonction des différentes règlementations régissant la production renouvelable ont été obtenues

International audience; With an estimated average loss of around 13 million hectares per year between 2000 and 2005 - 7.3 million hectares if reforestation is taken into account, according to FAO -, tropical deforestation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. At around 4.4 to 5.5 GtCO2 per year (the latter including peat forest degradation) according to the latest estimates, these emissions account for about 12 to 15% of annual anthropogenic CO2 emissions (from 8 to 20% taking into account the considerable uncertainties in the deforestation and degradation estimates). Moreover, tropical deforestation has a devastating impact on biological diversity, since tropical forests contain over two thirds of the 250 000 higher plants known to scientists. At present, emissions caused by deforestation in developing countries are regulated neither by the Framework Convention on Climate Change nor by the Kyoto Protocol. However, the issue of "avoided deforestation" is expected to be one of the difficult areas of the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (Copenhagen, December 2009), which will propose a post-Kyoto "climate" regime. Is the solution a market mechanism to "reward" actors or a fund to finance reforms that tackle the causes? The debate is open.; Avec une perte estimée à environ 13 millions d'hectares en moyenne par an entre 2000 et 2005 - 7,3 millions d'hectares, en prenant en compte les reboisements, selon la FAO -, la déforestation tropicale constitue une source majeure d'émission de gaz à effet de serre. De l'ordre de 4,4 à 5,5 Gt CO2 (ce dernier chiffre incluant la dégradation des tourbières) par an selon les dernières estimations, ces émissions contribueraient à 12-15 % des émissions annuelles anthropiques de CO2 (de 8 à 20 %, en tenant compte des incertitudes qui affectent les estimations de la déforestation et de la dégradation). De plus, la déforestation tropicale a des effets dévastateurs sur la diversité biologique, les forêts tropicales contenant plus des deux tiers des quelque 250 000 plantes supérieures connues des scientifiques. Actuellement, les émissions dues à la déforestation dans les pays en développement ne sont réglementées ni par la Convention cadre sur les changements climatiques ni par le protocole de Kyoto. Toutefois, la question de la « déforestation évitée » devrait constituer l’un des dossiers délicats de la quinzième conférence des parties à la convention Climat (Copenhague, décembre 2009), qui doit proposer le régime « climat » post-Kyoto. Mécanisme de marché « récompensant » les acteurs, ou fonds permettant de financer des réformes s’attaquant aux causes, le débat est ouvert.

In continental Europe, copyright law is traditionally viewed as a so-called 'natural' right - briefly put: it is simply right for the author to enjoy the fruits of his labor. However, socio-economic considerations are becoming more in important in European copyright doctrine. One reason for this tendency is that more and more copyright matters are regulated at the EU level and that the European regulator explicitly adheres to the economic rationale for copyright law. In this contribution, it is investigated what the apparent economic policy goals are of the EU Copyright Directive of 2001 - which is by far the most ambitious piece of EU legislation in the area of copyright to date. The purpose of this article is not to set-out new, cutting-edge economic theories on copyright law, but merely to analyze what the explicit and implicit aim of the Directive is and to explore what, according to standard, mainstream and widely known economic theory, will be the likely result of the new regulations on copyright law. Will the Copyright Directive succeed in achieving its apparent goals? What does economic theory predict about its impact? The emphasis is on the most important and controversial changes that the Copyright Directive brings about. These are the introduction of a right of temporary reproduction, the limiting of the exhaustion of copyright, the abolishing of remuneration rights and, last but certainly not least, the broad protection of technological measures - i.e. DRM systems. The article concludes that the Directive appears to be based on a great belief in the beneficial effects of granting property rights in information products and in the ability of the market mechanism to achieve an optimal result. However, it may well be argued that apparent faith in the 'invisible hand' of the market is unjustified. Particularly, the public good character of information products is not taken into account. Moreover, the provisions of the Directive may hinder competition to a further extent than copyright traditionally did, which could have an undesirable result as well. Additionally, the apparent reliance on market forces to match the demand for uses with the offered technological usage restrictions may be unsubstantiated. There may be valid arguments for limiting the freedom of contract and the freedom to block any information usage technologically.

SUMMARY At the present time in Western European countries and specially in France and in England rates of wages are made up if not for totality at least for principal after having been discussed on national scheme between the great employers associations and labour associations under official or semi-official state arbitration 10 recall of causes explaining the fact reactions which occured in France when French Government failed to recognize the fact Act of February llth 1954 Case of Great Britain the purpose of this research is to draw the inferences from tli is central fact on tliu theory of wages and of income distribution Necessity tu extend notion of wages Although particular factors can bring on innueiiLu upon directs wages or social transfers some general factors appear which have an effect upon total labour remuneration Examination of two late circumstances in which the phenomenon appears obvious Study of evolution of total wages amount in France from 1938 to 1951 Policy follows by Frendi government in 1954 in order to create rise of total labour wages Theorical inferences to draw connection of process of primary distribution with re-distribution Tull of theory of income distribution II Necessity of analizing the behaviour of different social groups Recall of the fact tliat on monopoly market or on bilateral oligopoly market mechanism of determination of price.- depends tightly on behaviour of the parties to the case Meaning of wages for the parties to the case Wages regarded as buying power by labourers Measures by which labourers can compel the other parties to ta ke their point of view into consideration Position of entrepreneurs who regard wages as cost They are led to introduce general price level as variable of the theory of wages Conseciuences for theory of income distribution Determination of specifically economic factors whicih have an effect upon dividing national income between the different groups of parti cipants Determination of social factors standard of living regarded as being v.-fll-founded and professional migration Application on French experiment, Marchal Jean. Esquisse d'une théorie moderne des salaires et d'une théorie générale de la répartition. In: Revue économique, volume 6, n°4, 1955. pp. 553-576.