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This study assesses the pesticide residues and Polyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination risks associated with the consumption of insects in Togo. The results of this research have shown that Desethylatrazine and Diuron were two herbicides found in some species. Acanthacris ruficornis (Serville, 1839) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and Imbrasia obscura (Butler, 1878) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) were found to contain Desethylatrazine at 0.320 and 0.640 µg·kg-1 respectively, while Oryctes monoceros (Olivier, 1789) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and Macrotermes bellicosus (Isoptera: Termitidae) contained Diuron at 0.217 and 0.532 µg·kg-1 respectively. Moreover, Permethrin insecticide was found only in Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Smeathman, 1781) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) at 0.556 µg·kg-1. However, the concentration of Permethrin found in this species is low compared to the maximum residual limit recommended in animalproducts (50 µg·kg-1). Moreover, no species contains more than one pesticide. For PAHs, only Fluoranthene was found in processed Cirina forda (Westwood, 1849) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) (0.31 µg·kg-1) at a relatively low concentration compared to the threshold allowed in processed foods (µg·kg-1). According to our results, the insects studied had a low tendency to accumulate pesticides that could pose risks to human health and the culinary methods of insects in Togo do not lead to the formation of PAHs.

In the recent years crickets, as well as cricket powder (CP) are interesting food ingredients in the European market. Some benefits of CP are high content of quality proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals and little environmental footprint. The aim of this work was to explore the impact of CP additive (2 and 4 %) on the color characteristics, technological and sensory properties of dry-fermented poultry bars. The use of CP as meat additive significantly decreases L* and a* values of the product. Structural strength, plastic strength and pH were significantly increased (p ˂ 0.05) in CP enriched raw and dry-fermented poultry bars. The moisture content and water activity (aw) in the final CP enriched poultry products increased (p ˂ 0.05). The incorporation of 2 % CP had slight impact on sensory properties of final product and can be successfully used for processing of value-added meat products. CP addition up to 4 % had negative effect on the color, sensory properties, structural and plastic strength on the filling mass and dry-fermented meat bars.

The NTFPs refer to any biological resource except that obtained from timber from woods or any other forested ecosystem. Thus, the NTFPs are ecologically forest-based, whether they come from the spontaneous flora or crops (home gardens, agroforestry, rural orchards) or from wild animals (Tabuna, 1999). They include vegetables, mushrooms, fruit and their extracts, essential oils, edible insects, honey, medicinal plants, game animals etc. Extractivism refers to collecting NTFPs for commercial purposes (Nguenang et Feteke, 2000). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recollection of insects is an ancient practice that can be observed in some places from Mexico. The objective of this work was to describe the actual situation around the recollection and preparation of edible insects in the touristic zone of Teotihuacán and Otumba, Mexico. By using ethnographic techniques (depth and semi-structured interviews and participant observation) were possible to document the forms of harvested and cooking of six species of edible insect. The recollection of edible insects is realized by families by using complicated and rudimentary techniques. The insects can be consumed raw or cooked form, and in form of various traditional dishes that are sold to tourists who arrive touristic area.

The objective of this paper is to present the beneficial aspects of some insects consumed in sub-Saharan Africa, based on examples of insects consumed in Cameroon, to present their potential as sources of lipids and essential fatty acids. In Africa, termites, larvae of raphia weevil, caterpillars, crickets, bees, maggots, butterflies, weevil, etc. are significant sources of food. These insects belong mainly to the orders of : Isoptera, Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera. Depending on the species, insects are rich in proteins, minerals (K, Ca, Mg, Zn, P, Fe) and/or vitamins (thiamine/B1, riboflavine/B2, pyridoxine/B6, acid pantothenic, niacin). The composition of oils extracted from the following six insects consumed in Cameroon was investigated : larvaes of raphia weevil (Rhynchophorus phoenicis), crickets (Homorocoryphus nitidulus), grasshopper (Zonocerus variegates), termites (Macrotermes sp.), a variety of caterpillars (Imbrasia sp.) and an unidentified caterpillar from the forest (UI carterpillar). The extraction yields of oil were 53.75%, 67.25%, 9.12%, 49.35%, 24.44% and 20.17% respectively for raphia weevil larvae, crickets, devastating crickets, termites, Imbrasia and UI caterpillar. The oil from raphia weevil mainly contains 37.60% of palmitoleic acid and 45.46% of linoleic acid. The oil from crickets is principally made up of palmitoleic acid (27.59%), linoleic acid (45.63%) and α-linolenic acid (16.19%). The oil from grasshoppers is composed of palmitoleic acid (23.83%), oleic acid (10.71%), linoleic acid (21.07%), α-linolenic acid (14.76%) and γ-linolenic acid (22.54%). The main components of termite oil are : palmitic acid (30.47%), oleic acid (47.52%) and linoleic acid (8.79%). Palmitic acid (36.08%) and linolenic acid (38.01%) are the two dominant fatty acids of Imbrasia oil. As Imbrasia oil, UI caterpillar oil is composed of palmitic acid (30.80%) and linolenic acid (41.79%). Stearic acid (7.04%), oleic acid (8.56%) and linoleic acid (6.59%) are also present. These results show that these insects are considerable sources of fat. Their oils are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, of which essential fatty acids are linoleic and linolenic acids. The ratio PUFA/SFA, in the majority of cases is higher than 0.8, associated with desirable levels of cholesterol.

Résumé Le recours aux protéines d’insectes comme substituts des protéines d’origine animale dans l’alimentation commence à s’intensifier dans plusieurs pays de l’Union européenne. La production (entomoculture) et la consommation (entomophagie) des insectes comestibles posent la question de leur innocuité en termes de risque allergique, microbiologique, parasitologique et toxicologique. La parenté étoite des insectes avec d’autres arthropodes (crustacés, acariens) suggère l’existence d’un risque allergique associé à l’entomophagie, d’autant que des cas d’anaphylaxie consécutifs à la consommation d’insectes ont été rapportés dans la littérature. Les allergènes responsables sont encore mal connus, comme d’ailleurs les protéines des insectes dont la diversité reste à analyser. Cependant, plusieurs allergènes potentiels ont été identifiés dans différentes espèces d’insectes comestibles. Ceux du ver de farine ( Tenebrio molitor ) et du ver à soie ( Bombyx mori ) ont été particulièrement analysés. Ces allergènes ont été identifiés à l’aide de sérums de patients allergiques aux crustacés ou aux acariens. Ces allergènes croisants correspondent essentiellement à des enzymes (α-amylase, arginine kinase, chitinase, glutathion-S-transférase, triose phosphate isomérase, trypsine), des protéines circulantes (hémocyanine, hexamérine) et des protéines musculaires (actine, sarcoplasmic Ca-binding protein , myosine, tropomyosine, troponine). Tous ces allergènes sont des protéines ubiquitaires dont les structures et les fonctions ont été parfaitement conservées au cours de l’évolution des arthropodes et des mollusques. On les retrouve en particulier dans les allergènes de contact des blattes Européenne ( Blattella germanica ) et Américaine ( Periplaneta americana ). Par contre, l’existence d’allergènes spécifiques des insectes comestibles n’a pas encore été rapportée. The increasing production and consumption of insect proteins as substitutes for meat proteins in European countries raises the question of their safety in terms of risk of allergy, of bacteriological and parasitological infection, and of toxicological contamination. The close relationship between insects with other arthropods (schrimps, dust mites) suggests the occurrence of an allergenic risk associated to entomophagy. In this respect, a few cases of anaphylactic reactions following the consumption of edible insects have been reported in the literature. However, the responsible allergens still remain poorly investigated, like most of the other insect proteins. Potential allergens have been recently identified in various species of edible insects like the yellow mealworm ( Tenebrio molitor ) and the silkworm ( Bombyx mori ). These allergenic proteins have been identified owing to their IgE-binding cross-reactivity toward patient sera allergic to shrimps and dust mites. The IgE-binding cross-reacting allergens of edible insects essentially correspond to enzymes (α-amylase, arginine kinase, chitinase, glutathione-S-transferase, triose phosphate isomerase, trypsin), hæmolyphatic proteins (hæmocyanin, hexamerin), and muscle proteins (actin, sarcoplasmic Ca-binding protein, myosin, tropomyosin, troponin). All of these potential allergens consist of ubiquitous proteins sharing three-dimensional structures and functions, which have been readily conserved during the evolution of arthropods and molluscs. Accordingly, most of these conserved structures and functions also occur in the allergenic proteins of both the German ( Blattella germanica ) and American ( Periplaneta americana ) cockroaches. However, the occurrence of specific allergens in edible insects has been not yet reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entomophagy: How to Overcome our European Aversion?. Entomophagy, the eating of insects, is not a curiosity but is practiced throughout the world, except in Europe and in North-America. For many Europeans, the consumption of insects is considered as a primitive and a repugnant comportment. An experiment, conducted in Belgium (Gembloux) has shown that, informed about the cultural, the nutritional and the ecological aspects of entomophagy, Westerners are able to surmount their aversion. Could insects become common dish in European and American restaurants?.

Résumé: Traditionnellement confinée à différents pays d’Asie, d’Afrique et d’Amérique du Sud, la consommation d’insectes ou entomophagie commence à s’étendre à l’Europe et aux États-Unis. Bien que très limitée, surtout pour des raisons psychologiques, l’entomophagie tend à se développer avec l’émergence, dans différents pays d’Europe, d’une production industrielle d’insectes comestibles, associée à l’ouverture de restaurants spécialisés dans des menus à base d’insectes. Malgré l’intérêt nutritionnel et l’apparente innocuité des insectes comestibles, il convient d’apprécier le risque allergénique qu’ils peuvent représenter pour des sujets allergiques aux crustacés, aux acariens ou aux mollusques. Divers pan-allergènes tels que la tropomyosine ou l’arginine-kinase, communs aux insectes, aux crustacés, aux acariens, aux mollusques et aux nématodes, pourraient être responsables de réactions croisées entre ces organismes d’origine différente. D’autres allergènes, plus spécifiques des insectes, pourraient également déclencher des réactions allergiques. Ces allergènes restent encore très mal connus et demandent à être identifiés et caractérisés. Dans cette attente et en raison de l’existence d’allergènes croisants chez les insectes, il paraît prudent de conseiller aux personnes allergiques aux crustacés ou aux mollusques, d’éviter de consommer ce genre de nourriture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]