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Dans la préface aux Confessions, Rousseau déclare se donner en comparaison pour l’étude des hommes qui reste encore à faire. Plus que le récit d’une vie singulière et plus qu’une plaidoirie, l’entreprise autobiographique rousseauiste aurait donc aussi une vocation anthropologique. Mais comment concevoir un tel procédé comparatif et comment définir la connaissance qu’il vise dans la mesure où Rousseau lui-même ne cesse par ailleurs d’associer comparaison et amour-propre ? Dès lors, nous verrons que si l’écriture de soi s’inscrit dans une perspective anthropologique, celle-ci ne saurait être coupée de l’ambition éthique et morale portée par l’auteur. In the preface to the Confessions, Rousseau declares that he gives himself in comparison for human study that is still to be done. More than a singular life story, and more than a plea, Rousseau’s autobiography would also have an anthropological vocation. But how can we conceive such a comparative process and the knowledge it aimed at since Rousseau himself keeps associating comparison and self-esteem? Hence, if self-writing is part of an anthropological and theoretical perspective, it should not be separate from an ethical and moral ambition.

To characterize a given field of knowledge, rather than focusing on what we currently know, or on key episodes of its history, an alternative strategy is to examine the representations of its future that guide and motivate the researchers. This is the reason why, if we want to undersand neuroscience, we should analyze the promises of neuroscience. Promises, in this context, are not speech acts. Scientific promises are future achievements that are considered plausible or probable in the light of our current knowledge, and that, for one reason or another, we perceive as important. To tell that a certain kind of research is « promising » is both to predict some kind of development that derives from it, and to evaluate this development in a positive manner. In this book, chapter 1 explores four areas of contemporary neuroscientific research and the promises associated to them : evolutionary neurobiology and the question of the origins of the neural world ; optogenetics ; connectomics ; neural correlates of pain and the ascription of pain states to distant organisms like fishes. Chapter 2 deals with the promises of different kinds of neuro-enhancement. Chapter 3 asks questions about the ability of neuroscience to contribute to our knowledge of ourselves., On peut entendre par promesses scientifiques un ensemble de potentialités déjà présentes (en matière de connaissance et d'interventions sur le monde) et de représentations qui sont à la fois celles de ces potentialités et d'un avenir riche de leur réalisation. Le premier chapitre explore quatre secteurs de la recherche contemporaine en neurosciences et réfléchit sur les promesses qui leur sont associées: neurobiologie évolutionnaire et origines des systèmes nerveux; enquête expérimentale ayant recours à l'optogénétique; connectomique; corrélats neuraux de la douleur. Le second chapitre traite des différentes formes de neuro-amélioration, du possible et du souhaitable en la matière. Le troisième chapitre interroge les promesses des neurosciences en matière de connaissance de soi.

In this paper, based of a geocritical approach, a journey as some path leading toward self-knowledge in the novel of Patrick Modiano, French writer and Nobel Prize winner, Voyage de noces (1990), has been analyzed. A journey is understood as a path that leads toward self-knowledge because the characters of the novel undergo changes depending on the place they find themselves in. This journey gains several forms: it can simply be a journey from one point to another, also can have the aspect of escapism and finally be understood as deportation. In all these cases the nature of the journey changes depending on how the characters perceive themselves. The narrator admits that his aim is to write the autobiography of Ingrida, the character of the novel. Thus he sets out on a journey through her inner world, that naturally will last longer than the one from one point to another. The places are generally depicted as central and peripheral, the capital of the country and its outskirts or the capital and the regions of the country. The narrator tries to understand changes in Ingrida’s life and her faith, at the same time changes in the author’s self-knowledge happen: he becomes a writer.

In this thesis, I propose to rethink memory in order to rethink personal identity. I start from an interrogation about personal identity. How is it possible that people, despite the changes that affect them, recognize themselves as themselves? A common answer to the diachronic question of personal identity is that memory is what makes the self: memories allow us to connect with ourselves and to have an idea of our diachronic personal identity. But interestingly, the recent empirical research on episodic memory shows that it has a constructive dimension and is not only a storage capacity that allows one to preserve and retrieve accurate representations of the past. What does it change for the question of personal identity? I start with an exploration of John Locke’s memory theory of personal identity, and argue that to be a person, in Locke's view, is to recognize oneself as same at different moments of time and thus, in this act of self-recognition, to constitute oneself as a person with a temporal dimension. I argue that Locke’s preservative view of memory has to be revised, and I propose an empirically informed discussion on the concept of memory. I contend that episodic memory has a constructive dimension and has both epistemic functions and functions related to the constitution of diachronic personal identity. I propose a constructive memory theory of personal identity. Episodic memory is at the same time a capacity which allows me to recognize myself and, because this recognition is not a simple recognition but a construction of a representation of myself through the gathering of information from various sources, it can produce and constitute my personal identity.; Dans cette thèse, je propose de repenser la mémoire afin de repenser l'identité personnelle. Je pars de la question suivante : Comment est-il possible que les personnes, malgré les changements qui les affectent, se reconnaissent comme mêmes à différents moments du temps ? Une réponse classique à la question diachronique de l'identité personnelle est qu’elle repose sur la mémoire : les souvenirs fondent notre continuité psychologique. Cependant, les récentes recherches empiriques sur la mémoire épisodique montrent qu'elle a une dimension constructive et qu'elle n'est pas seulement une capacité de stockage fidèle du passé. Qu'est-ce que cela change à la question de l'identité personnelle ? J’explore d’abord la théorie mémorielle de l'identité personnelle de John Locke, et je soutiens qu'être une personne, selon Locke, c'est se reconnaître comme telle à différents moments du temps et donc, dans cet acte d'auto-reconnaissance, constituer son identité personnelle. Je soutiens cependant que la vision conservatrice de la mémoire de Locke doit être révisée et je propose de repenser le concept de mémoire en m’appuyant sur les sciences contemporaines de la mémoire. Je soutiens qu’elle a une dimension constructive et propose une théorie de la mémoire constructive de l'identité personnelle. La mémoire épisodique est à la fois une capacité qui me permet de me reconnaître et, parce que cette reconnaissance n'est pas une simple reconnaissance mais la construction d'une représentation de moi-même à travers la collecte d'informations provenant de diverses sources, elle peut produire et constituer mon identité personnelle.

While criticizing the Western morality anchored, according to him, in the Delphic sentence “Know yourself”, Nietzsche develops for his part an imperative which is, in our opinion, the natural and necessary extension of the self-knowledge. It is, therefore, from the injunction to become oneself that he operates the criticism of morality itself resulting from the invitation to self-knowledge. It is not, however, a question of reducing the Nietzsche an ethics of becoming-self to the way in which one can understand this syntagm in Plato. The use that Nietzsche proposes of it is indeed, in our opinion, quite singular. It cannot be denied, however, that it also did not come out of nothing and that Nietzsche first draws lessons from Pindar, who reinterprets himself the Delphic sentence, when he writes “Becomeas you have learned to know youself”. We therefore think that Nietzsche recovers Pindar’s formula beyond Plato, to criticize the latter and, through him, the whole philosophy which made self knowledge the departure of ethics. But we would therefore also try to do justice to Plato, since his philosophy actually frees the possibility of becoming ourself.; Tout en critiquant la morale occidentale ancrée selon lui dans la sentence delphique « Connais-toi toi-même», Nietzsche développe pour sa part un impératif qui est, selon nous, le prolongement naturel et nécessaire d'un « Connais-toi toi-même » bien compris. C'est donc à partir de l'injonction à devenir soi qu’il opère la critique de la morale issue elle-même de l’invitation à la connaissance de soi. Il ne s’agit toutefois pas de rabattre l’éthique nietzschéenne du devenir-soi sur la façon dont on peut comprendre ce syntagme chez Platon. L’usage qu’en propose Nietzsche est bien, selon nous, tout à fait singulier. On ne saurait nier, cependant, qu’il n’est pas non plus sorti du néant et que Nietzsche tire d’abord des enseignements de Pindare, réinterprétant lui-même la sentence delphique, lorsqu’il écrit « Deviens tel que tu as appris à te connaître ». Nous pensons donc que Nietzsche récupère la formule de Pindare par delà Platon pour critiquer ce dernier et, à travers lui, toute la philosophie qui a fait de la connaissance de soi le départ de l'éthique. Mais nous voudrions donc également essayer de rendre justice à Platon, puisque sa philosophie libère en réalité la possibilité de devenir ce que l’on est.

L’analyse phénoménologique du mouvement du Soi a été menée auprès de dix-sept sujets, des intervenants en soins spirituels (ISS), ayant cheminé en direction d’une profession ouverte à la spiritualité et s’ouvrant à leur spiritualité. Notre démarche de recherche s’appuie sur la phénoménologie et s’ancre dans un paradigme constructiviste. Nous avons cherché à appréhender la formalisation d’un nouveau métier qui donne accès à une forme de psychologie spirituelle et laïque mise en pratique au moyen de soins spirituels non-confessionnels. Cette pratique particulière du soin spirituel au sein d’institutions de santé laïques nous a fait interroger les sources épistémologiques de l’herméneutique du Soi qui subit à la fois l’impact de l’histoire de la sécularité qui reconnaît la rupture culturelle et religieuse. Cette recherche a permis d’accéder à une meilleure compréhension du parcours spirituel des ISS et de comprendre la nature d’un soin spirituel laïque qui engage la spiritualité personnelle de l’ISS. Elle a aussi permis de proposer un modèle d’accompagnement qui se situe à l’interface des soins spirituels et de la psychothérapie. Le mouvement du Soi s’exprime d’abord, chez l’ISS, dans la connaissance de ses propres blessures, de son humanité et dans un rapport à soi envisagé du point de vue de la normativité culturelle, religieuse, sociale et/ou institutionnelle. Ensuite, le Soi cherche à advenir à un nouveau rapport à l’existence que le sujet construit au fur et à mesure qu’il avance en direction d’une autonomie à conquérir – le gouvernement de soi – qui décrit une forme de maturité spirituelle ouverte à la spiritualité d’autrui. Enfin, l’atteinte de cette maturité se réalise pour le sujet au sein d’une création poétique de Soi qui est acceptation de Soi et permet au sujet ISS de déployer sa spiritualité au cœur d’un espace laïque au service du besoin spirituel des patients. L’analyse de contenu du mouvement de l’être a permis de formaliser quatre étapes évolutives à travers lesquelles s’accomplit le déploiement d’une psychologie spirituelle propre aux sujets spirituels : (1) la figuration en tant que pensée spirituelle qui se cherche dans un mouvement causal ; (2) la configuration qui renvoie à la pensée spirituelle engagée dans la construction d’un sens sur elle-même, d’une histoire à soi et d’une spiritualité à vivre ; (3) la refiguration comme la pensée qui se critique et se Remet en question (c’est la récursivité selon Morin 2006) ; (4) la transfiguration qui est le moment où la pensée se valide, advient et repart en mouvement rétrocausal. Cette dernière et quatrième étape du mouvement du Soi permet de mettre à jour les éléments constitutifs de la sagesse qui se centre sur la découverte, la construction et l’expression du Soi. Elle permet au sujet spirituel de se découvrir et de se prendre lui-même pour objet de conscience à portée universel, c’est-à-dire qu’il se projette adéquatement dans l’espace commun, entre sa spiritualité et la pensée dominante laïque. Cet entre-deux est ce qui caractérise la sagesse – Sophia en grec – dans la mesure où le sujet est capable de trouver un point de rencontre entre son histoire individuelle et l’histoire commune. Cette sagesse le fait s’inscrire au bon moment et au bon endroit (c’est le kairos) et l’aide à construire sa propre histoire soumise aux aléas de l’existence. Son expérience humaine et spirituel exprime alors son désir de l’indéterminé enchainé à la causalité. Les résultats concernant la psychologie spirituelle et laïque ont donné lieu à une distinction entre la croyance religieuse et la spiritualité religieuse. Dans le premier cas, le sujet se retrouve dans une forme de culture de soi (Foucault, 1979) qui vise le seul rapport authentique à soi ; dans le second, il place le sujet dans une situation relevant du dépassement de soi (Hadot, 1993) qui le positionne dans une quête de sens continuelle. En somme, ce mouvement du Soi apparaît être soumis à une organisation spécifique de la pensée faisant que la quête de sens s’accomplie dans une récurrence qui l’abolit sans répit (il n’y a pas de sens) tout en l’affirmant sans arrêt (le sens est le sens lui-même). Ce mouvement de la pensée est en fait un mouvement du soi qui se perd dans l’élaboration d’un savoir sur soi inductif et déductif et qui décrit l’idée que « le sens du sens est un sens qui n’a pas de sens ». Mais qui permet d’arriver à un point de rencontre entre le soi et l’autre, entre l’intérieur et l’extérieur, entre le dedans et le dehors. Finalement, la Sophia (Reconnaissance de Soi) est portée par le principe de récursivité (la critique de Soi qui permet de juger ses jugements, de critiquer sa critique et de dépasser les préjugés sur soi ou sur le monde) et est le point d’ancrage à notre construction clinique axée sur la compréhension de l’ensemble du mouvement de l’être., The phenomenological analysis of the movement of the Self was carried out with seventeen subjects, speakers in spiritual care (ISS), having journeyed towards a profession opened to spirituality and opening to their spirituality. Our research approach is based on phenomenology and is anchored in a constructivist paradigm. We sought to understand the formalization of a new profession which gives access to a form of spiritual and secular psychology put into practice by means of non-confessional spiritual care. This particular practice of spiritual care within secular health institutions made us question the epistemological sources of self hermeneutics which goes through both the impact of the history of secularity, which recognizes the cultural and religious rupture. This research provided a better understanding of the spiritual journey of the ISS and an understanding of the nature of secular spiritual care that engages the personal spirituality of the ISS. It had also made it possible to propose a model of accompaniment which is located at the interface of spiritual care and psychotherapy. The movement of the Self is first expressed in the knowledge of one's own wounds, of one's humanity and in a relationship to oneself from the point of view of cultural, religious, social and / or institutional normativity. Then, the subject seeks to come to a new relationship with himself that he builds while moving in the direction of an autonomy to conquer - self-government - which describes a form of spiritual maturity opened to other people’s spirituality. Finally, the achievement of this maturity is made by a poetic creation of the Self which is the acceptance of the Self that allows the ISS to deploy its spirituality in the heart of a secular space at the service of the spiritual need of patients. The content analysis of the movement of the Self has made it possible to define four evolutionary stages through which the deployment of a spiritual psychology specific to spiritual subjects is accomplished: (1) figuration as a spiritual thought that is sought in causal movement; (2) the configuration which refers to the spiritual thought engaged in the construction of a sense of itself, of a story of its own and of a spirituality to live; (3) refiguration as a thinking that criticizes and questions itself (this is recursion according to Morin 2006); (4) the transfiguration which is the moment when the thought is validated, occurs and starts again in a retrocausal movement. 6 This last and fourth stage of the movement of the Self allows to reveal a form of wisdom which approach is centered on the discovery, the construction and the expression of the Self. Indeed, the spiritual subject can discover himself and take himself as the object of consciousness with an universal scope, in other words, that he projects himself adequately in the common space, between his spirituality and the dominant secular thought . This in-between is what characterizes wisdom - Sophia in Greek - insofar as the subject is able to find a meeting point between his individual history and the common history. This wisdom makes him find himself at the right time, at the right place (this is the kairos) and helps him to build his own story subjected to the vagaries of existence. Then, his human and spiritual experience are expressing his desire for the indeterminate chained to causality. The results regarding the spiritual and secular psychology gave rise to a distinction between religious belief and religious spirituality. In the first case, the subject finds himself in a form of self-culture (Foucault, 1979) which aims at the only authentic relationship with the self; in the second one, it places the subject in a situation to surpass oneself (Hadot, 1993) which positions him in a continuous quest for meaning. In short, this movement of the Self appears to be subjected to a specific organization of thought where the quest for meaning is accomplished in a recurrence which abolishes it without respite (there is no meaning) while affirming it without stopping (the meaning is the meaning itself). This movement of thought is in fact a movement of the self which is lost in the formation of an inductive and deductive self-knowledge and which describes the idea that "the sense of meaning is a meaning that has no meaning". However, it makes it possible to reach a meeting point between the self and the other, between the interior and the exterior, between the inside and the outside; it also allows to judge the judgments, criticize the criticism and overcome prejudices about oneself or the world. Finally, Sophia (Self-recognition) is the anchor point of the whole movement of the Self, making the object of our clinic essentially focused on the principle of recursion (Selfcriticism)., Cotutelle : Psychopathologie et recherches en psychanalyse

National audience

L’anatomie, qui a fait à la Renaissance des progrès considérables, va au-delà de la connaissance de la structure du corps humain, si l’on en croit les anatomistes du temps. On comprend que la littérature apologétique se nourrisse de leurs recherches ; on découvre, avec plus d’étonnement, qu’à leur tour, ceux-ci empruntent aux apologistes, tant ils sont persuadés que connaître son corps et se connaître soi-même constituent une même entreprise, dont l’ultime finalité est la connaissance de Dieu., Anatomy, which made considerable advances during the Renaissance, goes beyond the knowledge of the structure of the human body, according to the anatomists of the time. It is to be understood that apologetic literature is enriched by their research; we discover, with more astonishment, that they in turn borrow from the apologists, so much so that they are convinced that knowing one’s body and knowing oneself are the same endeavor, whose ultimate aim is knowledge of God.

International audience; In the Oedipus Coloneus, Sophocles has chosen to give a new identity to the character of Oedipus by articulating it, as in Oedipus Rex, to self-knowledge and its dangers. He was soiled ; he becomes a savior, a hero-to-be, but remains dangerous because of the ambivalent powers which are now his and make its body the most wanted weapon. The play consists in fact in the progressive revelation about these two aspects of Oedipus’ identity that are in tension with one another.,; Dans l’Œdipe à Colone, Sophocle choisit de donner une nouvelle identité au personnage d’Œdipe, en l’articulant comme dans Œdipe Roi à la question du savoir sur soi, et aux dangers qui lui sont inhérents. De souillure, il devient sauveur, héros à venir, mais reste dangereux car les pouvoirs ambivalents qu’il détient désormais placent son corps devenu arme au centre des convoitises. C’est dans la connaissance progressive de ces deux pôles en tension de l’identité d’Œdipe que va se jouer la pièce.

Bu çalışmada yaşamın amacı mutlu olmaktır varsayımından yola çıkıldı. Çalışan insanın yaşamında iş yaşamının önemli yer kapladığı, dolayısıyla çalışan insanın iş yaşamındaki memnuniyeti ile yaşamdaki mutluluğu arasında yakın ilişki olduğu düşünüldü. Çalışan insanların işleriyle ilişkilerine bakıldığında adeta bir memnuniyet yelpazesinin söz konusu olduğu görüldü; yelpazenin bir ucunda işlerini tutkuyla yapanlar, diğer ucunda gönülsüz çalışanlar yer alıyordu. İnsanın bu yelpazedeki yerini neler belirliyor olabilirdi? Doğuştan getirdiği özellikler, yaşadığı biyolojik/psikolojik değişiklikler, içine doğduğu aile ve içinde yaşadığı çevrenin ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel koşulları, hatta şans gibi fazla etkileyemeyeceği ama etkileşim içinde bulunduğu pek çok boyutun, insanın yaşamının bütünü gibi iş yaşamının belirlenmesinde de önemli etkisi olduğu düşünüldü. Ancak, pek fazla etki edemeyeceği bu boyutların yanında, insan yaptığı seçimlerle de yaşamını ve dolayısıyla iş yaşamını etkileyebiliyordu. Bu çalışmada insanın fazlaca etkileyemeyeceği biyolojik, psikolojik, sosyal, kültürel boyutlar paranteze alınarak, meslek/iş yaşamına ilişkin olarak nasıl hissettiği ile yaptığı seçimler arsasındaki olası ilişki araştırıldı. İnsan doğasından yola çıkılarak, iş yaşamında insanı mutluluğa götüren seçimlere ilişkin ortak bir payda bulunup, bulunamayacağı tartışıldı. Tartışma özellikle insan doğası, erdemler, mutluluk, seçimler, Aristoteles'teki `prohairesis`, kendini bilme, potansiyel, seçimlerinde içsel ve diğerkam ya da dışsal ve rekabetçi unsurlara öncelik verme, kendi olma cesareti gösterme kavramları üzerinden yapıldı. Bunun için seçilmiş kavramlar tanımlandı, felsefe tarihinde ve günümüzde bu kavramların bireyin yaşamında kendini nasıl ifade ettiği felsefi yönden irdelendi. Ayrıca, filozofların görüşlerinin yanında kavramların insanın biyolojisi, psikolojisi ve sosyokültürel yapısı ile yakın ilişkisi sebebiyle, bütüncül bir sonuca ulaşmak amacıyla, bu konularda yapılan deneysel araştırma sonuçlarından da yararlanıldı. Birinci bölümde öncelikle çalışma, iş, meslek ve kariyer kavramları gözden geçirildi. Devamında iş seçimleriyle, insan doğası arasındaki ilişki incelendi. `İnsan her ne isterse onu olabilir mi?` sorusu soruldu. Bu çerçevede, insan doğası kuramları gözden geçirildi ve bu kuramlar üç gruba ayrıldı: 1) İnsan doğası doğuştandır, değiştirilemez (doğacı yaklaşım). 2) İnsan doğası doğuştan değildir, yapılır (yetiştirmeci yaklaşım). 3) İnsan doğası doğuştandır ve farklı etkiler altında gelişir (biyopsikososyal yaklaşım). Birinci görüşte olanlar insan davranışının kaynağının içgüdüler, evrim ve genler olduğunu iddia ediyorlardı. İnsanın doğası doğuştan ve değiştirilemezse, insanın baştan programlanması gibi bir durum söz konusu oluyordu. Bu durumda doğal olarak seçimlerden de söz edilemezdi. İkinci görüşte olanlar insanların verilmiş bir doğayla doğmadıkları, şekil verilecek kadar esnek olduklarını ileri sürüyorlardı. İnsanın doğuştan hiçbir doğası olmayıp, tamamen yapılan bir doğa söz konusu ise, insanın doğasından kaynaklanan hiçbir kısıtlamaya tabi olmadan seçim yapabileceği, (çevre ya da kültürün önemine değinenler açısından, çevre ya da kültür buna uygunsa) var sayılabilirdi. Bu durumda da insanı mesleki anlamda yabancılaşmış ya da tutkulu ve coşkulu hissettirecek ortak bir payda bulmak pek mümkün olmayacaktı. Sonuncu görüşte olanlara göre ise insanın doğuştan gelen, ancak çevresiyle etkileşim halinde şekillenen, yani belirli bir esnekliği olan bir doğası bulunuyordu. Bu görüştekilere göre insanın bireysel gelişimin biyolojik (genler, doğum öncesi çevre, hormonlar gibi), psikolojik (gen-çevre etkileşimi, inançlar, duygular, beklentiler gibi) ve sosyal-kültürel (ebeveyn etkisi, arkadaş etkisi, kültürel normlar gibi) boyutları bulunmaktaydı ve bu yaklaşıma `biyopsikososyal yaklaşım` adı verilmekteydi. Eğer insan boş bir levha olmayıp, doğasındaki biyolojik unsurlar, psikolojik ve sosyal-kültürel unsurlar ile etkileşim halinde geliştirilebiliyorsa, buradan yola çıkarak kişiden kişiye değişmeyen ve insanı mesleki anlamda yabancılaşmış ya da tutkulu hissettiren ortak bir payda bulunabilirdi. Bilimsel araştırma sonuçlarının da desteklediği bu kuram doğru varsayılarak, buradan ilerlendi. Çevresiyle etkileşim halinde şekillense dahi, insanın doğuştan gelen bir doğası olduğundan söz edilebiliyorsa, insanın mutluluğundan ve kişiden kişiye değişmeyen mutluluk kriterlerinden de söz edilebilirdi. İkinci bölümde öncelikle felsefe tarihinde mutluluk kavramı kısaca gözden geçirildi. Felsefede mutluluk kavramı kendini mutçuluk (eudaimonism) olarak gösteriyordu. Bu görüş hayatın anlamını mutlulukta buluyor, insan davranışlarının mutluluk isteğiyle belirlendiği görüşüne dayanıyordu. Ayrıca bu görüş mutlulukla erdemli yaşam arasında ilişki kuruyor ve mutluluğu eğitim ve talim yoluyla ulaşılabilecek bir hedef olarak görüyordu. Bunun ötesinde, felsefe tarihinde mutçuluk kimi zaman hazcılık biçimine girmiş, Hıristiyanlık ve Müslümanlıkta öteki dünya mutluluğu söz konusu olmuş, Yeniçağ 'da ise bireycilikten yararcılığa geçilmişti. Öte yandan, felsefi teorilerden yola çıkarak yapılan deneysel araştırmalar, mutluluğa ilişkin olarak ileri sürülen felsefi teorilerin pek çoğunu doğruluyordu. Mutluluğun tanımında zorluk yaşayan psikologlar 1970'li yıllarda kişinin mutluluğunu eudaimonic (övgüye değer bir yaşamı olup olmadığı) anlamda değerlendirmeyip, kendini iyi hissetmesi anlamında değerlendirerek, kişinin yaşamında olumlu duygulanımın yüksek, olumsuz duygulanımın düşük düzeyleri çerçevesinde gerçekleşen genel bir tatmin duygusu anlamına gelen `öznel iyilik duygusu` (subjective well-being= SWB) kavramını üretmişlerdi. Bu anlamda insanın mutlu olması ve bunu ifade etmesi mümkündü. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre; iyimser ve açık yürekli olan, yakın arkadaşları ya da mutlu bir evlilikleri bulunan, iş ve boş zamanlarında yeteneklerini kullananlar, anlamlı bir dini inancı olanlar, bireysel kültürlerde yüksek özgüveni olanlar, kolektivist kültürlerde sosyal kabulü yüksek olanlar, iyi uyuyup, spor yapanlar mutluluğa daha yatkın görünüyorlardı. Aile ilişkileri, dostlar ve sosyal ilişkiler insan mutluluğuna en çok etki eden unsur olarak ortaya çıkıyordu. Gelir boyutunda, zorunlu ihtiyaçları karşılayacak ve orta sınıfa mensup olacak gelir mutluluğa katkı sağlarken, bunun üzerindeki bir gelir, tek başına insanın mutluluk seviyesine büyük bir etkide bulunmuyordu. Erdemli bir yaşam mutsuzluğa tampon görevi görürken, mutluluğu destekliyordu. İş, yalnızca gelir getirme boyutu ile ilişkisi dolayısıyla değil, kişinin kendisine saygısı ve sosyal ilişkileri boyutlarında da mutluluğa etki ediyordu. İşin türü de önemliydi. İnsana özyönetim duygusu vermeyen işler, insanların kendilerini cansız, değersiz hissetmelerine sebep oluyordu. Bunun yanında seçilen hedeflerin mutluluğa etkisi olabiliyordu; kişilerin aile odaklı ve diğerkâm yaşam amaçları olması durumunda yaşamlarındaki doyum ve anlam artıyordu. Bilim adamları insan ve işle ilgili araştırma sonuçları ışığında insanı mutlu edecek türdeki işlerin özelliklerine yönelik farklı teoriler ileri sürmüşlerdi. Bu teoriler ve mutlulukla ilgili araştırma sonuçları bir arada değerlendirilerek insanı mutlu edecek türde bir işin taşıması gereken temel özelliklere ilişkin bir liste oluşturuldu. Bu listenin bir kesinlik taşımadığı, yine de işle ilgili seçimler yapma durumunda olan bir insanın, seçim yapmadan önce, bu listede yer alan öğelerin, ilgilendiği iş ile uyumunu gözden geçirerek en azından bir iç görü kazanabileceği belirtildi. Mutlu eden işin özellikleri şöyle tanımlandı:1)Özerklik; işinde denetim sahibi olma, 2) ustalık; önemli bir konuda sürekli daha iyiye gitme, 3) amaç sahibi olma/aşkınlık; işi kendimizden daha büyük, daha yüce bir şey için yapma, 4)kişinin yatkınlığı bulunan belirli erdemleri ve bunlara ulaşacağı yolları (imza güçleri) kullanmaya olanak sağlama, 5) mümkün olduğu kadar çok akış yaşama (kişinin yetenekleriyle uyumlu bir konuya kendini başka bir şeyi umursamayacak kadar kaptırma, zorlanmadan sıkı çalışmaya girme ve geribildirim alma) olanağı sağlama.6) en azından temel ihtiyaçlara duyulan yoksunluğu giderecek ve çalışanı orta sınıfa dahil edecek miktarda bir gelir sağlama, 7) aile, dost ve sosyal ilişkilere gereken zamanı ayırma olanağı verme 8)rekabetçi eylemler yerine diğerkam yaşam amaçları edinmeye olanak sağlama. İnsan doğası ve insanı mutlu eden işin özellikleri bu şekilde belirlendikten sonra insanı iş yaşamında mutlu eden seçimlere yönelik ortak payda arayışına devam edildi. Bunun için öncelikle seçim kavramı üzerinde duruldu. Bu çerçevede, üçüncü bölümde Aristoteles'deki `Prohairesis`, seçmek ya da tercih etmek kavramından yola çıkıldı. Seçimlerden bazılarının gündelik olarak adlandırılabileceği, bazılarının ise hayatın rotasını belirleyen türden seçimler olduğu ve meslek/işe yönelik seçimlerin de sonuncu türden bir seçim olarak değerlendirilebileceği belirtildi. Tek bir seçim gibi görünen meslek seçiminin aslında bir seçimler paketi olduğu, dolayısıyla bir kez seçim yapıldıktan sonra değiştirmenin zor olabileceği ifade edildi. Bu derece önemli bir seçim sürecinin sağlıklı işlemesi için Aristoteles'deki `prohairesis` kavramı üzerinden ilerlendi. Prohairesis sadece akıl yürütmeyle ilgili konularda ve enine boyuna düşünme durumunda söz konusu oluyor, teknik konularda örneğin matematikte enine boyuna düşünme sonunda yapılan bir tercih bu çerçevede değerlendirilmiyordu. Bu bağlamda meslek/iş seçimi de, prohairesis'in nesnesi olarak kabul edildi. Bu çerçevede, insanı mutluluğa götüren makul ve doğru bir iş seçimi süreci prohairesis sürecinden ilham alınarak şöyle tanımlandı: 1)Meslek/iş seçim(ler)i yapan kişi ani karar vermemeli, etraflıca düşünmeli,`geleceğini şimdileştiren` meslek/iş seçimini yaptığının farkında olmalıydı. 2) Kişi seçim yaparken ezbere davranış içinde olmamalı, iyiye dair bilgisini sınamalı, varsayımlarını mutlak gerçeklerle karıştırmayarak, dikkatlice gözden geçirmeliydi. 3)Seçim onu yapan kişiyi temsil etmeli, dolayısıyla doğru bir seçim yapmak için kişi hem kendini hem de yapmayı düşündüğü mesleği/işi bilmeli, meslekle kendi varoluşunun uyumunu değerlendirmeliydi. 4) Meslek/iş seçimi yapma durumunda olan kişi hem seçiminin sebeplerinin farkında olmalı, hem de seçiminin sonuçları hakkında öngörüde bulunmaya çalışmalıydı. Prohairesis sürecinden ilham alınarak iş seçimi sürecinin çatısı bu şekilde belirlendikten sonra, sürecin boyutları değerlendirildi. Seçim sürecinde yer alan birbiri ile yakından ilişkili görünen boyutların birlikte değerlendirilmeleri kararlaştırıldı. Buna göre etraflıca düşünme, iyiye dair bilgiyi sınama, kendini bilme boyutları bir arada `kendini bilme` başlığı altında, mesleği bilme, meslek seçiminin sebeplerini bilme, seçimin sonuçlarını öngörme boyutları da `seçimin sebep ve sonuçları` başlığı altında değerlendirildi. Kendini bilme kavramına öncelikle antik çağ filozofları ışığında bakıldı. Kendini bilmenin olup bitecek bir durum olmadığı, dolayısıyla ömür boyu sürecek bir süreç olduğundan söz edildi. Sokrates'e göre kişi kendini bilmek için yaşamını incelemeliydi; kendini bilme ruhunu bilmeyi ve bilge olmayı gerektirirdi. Aristoteles ise iyinin ne olduğunu bilmenin onu hemen yapmak anlamına gelmediğini ifade ediyor, insanın alıştırmalarla kendine egemen olmayı öğrenmesi ve istencini eğitip güçlü isteklerine karşı durarak etik eylemlerde bulunması gerektiğini belirtiyordu. Aristoteles insanda olanak halinde olanların, insanın asıl doğasının farkına varması durumunda edim haline geçebileceğini, aklın insana hem amacının ne olduğunu, hem de ona nasıl ulaşacağını göstereceğini ifade ediyordu. İnsanın asıl doğası düşüncesi potansiyel kavramını çağrıştırdı. Potansiyel düşüncesi, insanın doğuştan gelen ve çevresiyle etkileşim halinde şekillenen bir doğaya sahip olduğu varsayımı ile de uyumlu görünüyordu. Kendini bilme ve potansiyel bağlamında insanın `ben kimim?` ve `gelecekte nasıl bir insan olmak istiyorum?` benzeri sorular üzerinde düşünmesinin önemine dikkat çekildi. Bu sorular üzerinde düşünürken dostlarla, uzmanlarla diyaloga girilebileceği, bireysel ölçme-değerlendirme araçlarından yardım alınabileceği belirtildi. Devamında kendini bilme çabası göstermeden yaşayan birinin karşılaşabileceği olası risklere değinildi. Kültür robotu ya da şahsiyet olmak kavramları üzerinde duruldu. Kendini bilme çabası göstermeyen kişinin yaşamda karşısına çıkan yollardan birine rastgele sapma ya da kendine ait olmayan ve o anda toplumda kabul gören bir düşünceyi kendine hedef olarak belirleme durumunda kalabileceği ifade edildi. Öte yandan herhangi bir sebeple kendini yansıtmayan bir seçimi yaşayan birinin, kendini bilme gayreti içinde olmaya devam etmesi durumunda, o an itibariyle anlamlı ve doyumlu bir iş yaşamına sahip olmasa da, kariyerini oluşturmak üzere bilinçli bir niyeti ele geçirme ve gelecekte bu niyet çerçevesinde kendini yansıtan başka seçimler yapma şansını korumaya devam edebileceği belirtildi.Sonrasında, `prohairesis` kavramı bağlamında mesleği/işi bilme, meslek seçiminin sebeplerini bilme ve seçiminin olası sonuçlarını öngörme üzerinde duruldu. Mesleği/işi bilmenin bu çalışmanın çerçevesine fazlaca dahil olmadığı ifade edildi. Ancak yine de staj yapma, meslekten insanlarla konuşma benzeri yöntemlerle bir meslek/iş hakkında fikir edinilebileceği belirtildi. Mesleğe/işe yönelik seçiminin sebebini bilmenin, o seçimle ilgili etraflıca düşünmenin bir parçası olduğu, ancak her meslek/iş seçimi yapanın bu seçimi hakkında etraflıca düşünmüyor ya da düşünemeyecek bir zorluk yaşıyor olması durumunda bile, muhtemelen seçiminin sebebini bildiği ifade edildi. İnsanın tek bir seçim gibi görünen meslek seçiminin esasında bir seçimler paketi olması sebebiyle meslek/iş seçiminin tek bir sebebi olmasının beklenemeyeceği belirtildi. İnsanın seçim sırasında nihai tercihte bulunmak için çeşitli sebepler arasından birine öncelik vereceği, kişinin öncelik verdiği bu sebebin Aristoteles'in sözünü ettiği `bir şey için yapılan bir şey` deki ilk `bir şey` olacağı söylendi. Bu durumun seçim yapan kişinin diğer sebepleri tamamıyla dışladığı anlamına gelmeyip, diğer sebepleri ikinci plana iteceği anlamına geldiği, bu çalışmada düşünme pratiğinin devamı açısından meslek/iş seçimi iki temel gruba ayrıldıklarının varsayılacağı ifade edildi. Bunlar: 1) Önceliğin içsel ve diğerkam unsurlara (potansiyelini hayata geçirme, topluma katkıda bulunma, aileye zaman ayırma gibi)verildiği seçimler. Bu durumda `bir şey için yapılan bir şey`; insanlara yardım etmek için, doktorluk yapmak olmaktaydı. 2) Önceliğin dışsal ve rekabetçi unsurlara (güç/ün/para/statü kazanma gibi) verildiği seçimler. Bu durumda `bir şey için yapılan bir şey`; iyi kazanmak için, doktorluk yapmak olmaktaydı. Her ne kadar kişinin iş seçim sebeplerine ilişkin ikili bir ayrım yapılmış olsa da, bir insanın işe ilişkin seçimlerini ne yukarıda belirtildiği şekilde öncelik vermediği sebebi tamamıyla dışlayarak, ne de tüm yaşamı boyunca önceliği hep aynı sebebe vererek yapmasının öngörülemeyeceği belirtildi. Yine de, yaşama çok temelden bir bakış açısını yansıttığı için, insanın büyük değişimler ya da zorlayıcı olaylar yaşamadığı müddetçe, yaşamında bu seçimlerden birine daha fazla ağırlık vermesinin beklenebileceği söylendi.Meslek/iş seçiminin sonucunu öngörmek boyutuna gelince; öncelikle bunun ne derece mümkün olabileceği değerlendirildi. `Sistem Kuramı Çerçevesi` (Systems Theory Framework, STF) görüşü, kariyer gelişimini birbiriyle etkileşim halindeki karmaşık ve birbirine bağlı sistemlerin ürünü olarak görüyordu. Buna ilaveten, kariyer gelişimi zaman ve şansa bağlı olarak değişim gösteren dinamik bir süreci ifade etmekteydi. Dolayısıyla insanın böyle büyük bir sistemle etkileşim içindeyken yaptığı herhangi bir seçimin mutlak sonucunu öngörmesini beklemek gerçekçi olamazdı. Ancak bu durum insanın seçimlerinin sonucu üzerinde düşünmemesini gerektirmezdi. Bu bağlamda, kişinin seçimini yaparken öncelik verdiği boyutlarla seçiminin sonuçları arasındaki olası ilişki araştırıldı. Kişinin mesleğe/işe yönelik seçimlerini yaparken içsel ve diğerkam ya da dışsal ve rekabetçi boyutlara öncelik vermesinin yaratacağı olası sonuçların değerlendirilmesine mesleğe yönelik seçimini ailesinin zoruyla, muhtemelen dışsal ve rekabetçi unsurlara öncelik vererek yapan, İnşaat Mühendisliği bölümünde öğrenim gören, yirmi üç yaşındaki bir gencin mektubu üzerinden başlandı. Bu genç mesleğe yönelik seçimini yaptıktan dört yıl sonra `İnşaat mühendisliği yapmak istemiyorum. Hangi işi yapmak istediğimi ise bilmiyorum. Hiçbir duygum net değil, içerisi karmakarışık` demekteydi. Neyse ki yaşamda mesleğe/işe dair tek bir seçim yapılması söz konusu değildi. Bu genç kendisini mutlu etmediği görülen seçiminin olumsuz sonuçlarını, sağlıklı yeni bir seçim süreci yaşaması ve azim, kararlılık, sabır, cesaret gibi erdemlere sahip olması durumunda, başka seçimlerle bertaraf edebilirdi. Buradan yola çıkarak Rollo May'in belirttiği `kendi olma cesareti göstermek` kavramı üzerinde duruldu.May, cesaret kelimesini savaşta ihtiyaç duyulan cesaret anlamında kullanmıyor, kişinin toplumda kabul görme ihtiyacına değinerek cesareti `kişi özgürlüğe eriştikçe ortaya çıkan endişeyle yüzleşebilme kapasitesi` olarak tanımlıyordu. May, `kahraman` sözüyle de insanların sıra dışı davranışlarını değil, içlerindeki kahramanlık cevheri ve davranışlarıyla adeta `bu benim varlığım` demelerini kast ediyordu. May'e göre cesaret bir seçimdi ve `başka çarem yok` diye düşünülerek verilen kararlarda söz konusu olmazdı. Yukarıdaki gencin mektubundaki ifadelerden yola çıkarak May'in sözünü ettiği anlamda `kendi olma cesareti` göstermekle, kendini bilmek arasındaki ilişkiye değinildi. Kendini bilmede belirli bir aşamaya gelen ve içsel özelliklerine öncelik vererek kendi olma cesareti gösteren insanın, meslek/işe dair varoluşunu yansıtan seçimler yaparak, yaşamına etkisi olan, ancak etki edemediği diğer koşulların da uygun olması durumunda, seçimlerini hayata geçirebileceği sonucuna varıldı. Kendi olma cesaretini gösteremeyen insan ise MacIntyre'ın, Aristoteles'e referansla belirttiği gibi; olanak halinden edim haline geçemeyecek, sonuç olarak hüsrana uğrayarak yarım kalabilecek, elde etmeğe çalışsa da mutluluğa ulaşmada başarısız olabilecekti.Tüm bu değerlendirmeler ışığında sonuç olarak; yaşam yolculuğunda düşünmeden karar vermeyip, kendini bilme çabası içinde iyinin bilgisini arayarak, seçimlerinin sebeplerinin farkında olanların ve seçimlerinin olası sonuçlarını değerlendirenlerin, seçimlerinde önceliği içsel ve diğerkam unsurlara vermeleri ve bunu takiben kendi olma cesareti göstermeleri durumunda, yaşamda kendilerinin dışında yer alan ve fazla etki edemedikleri boyutların da izin vermesi/uygun olması şartıyla, Aristoteles'in tanımladığı anlamda mutlu insan olmaya daha yakın olacakları sonucuna varıldı. This study has its roots in the assumption that the purpose of life is to be happy. Another significant assumption underlying the study is that work life occupies a significant place in working people's lives and, as a corollary to that, a close relationship exists between happiness in work and life. A look at working people's lives revealed various degrees of satisfaction spread across a wide scale, on the one end of which are people passionate about their jobs. On the opposite end of the scale are people who do their jobs unwillingly. What factors could be cited that determined people's place on this scale? This study assumes that various factors such as genetically inherited traits experienced biological/psychological changes, economic, social and cultural conditions of the family of origin/social environment and even chance, over which people do not have much control but still interact with, have an important impact on people's work lives besides their lives as a whole. However, despite these factors over which people do not have much control, people can still have an impact on their own lives including their professional lives through their choices. The main focus of the study is the relationship between people's occupational choices and their outlook on work life while biological, psychological, social and cultural factors were not discussed in detail. The study also discusses whether choices that lead people to pursue fulfilling careers share a common ground, placing human nature at the center of the issue. The discussion was specifically centered on concepts such as human nature, virtue, choices, Aristotelian `prohairesis`, knowing one-self, potential, prioritizing internal aspects with altruistic aims or external aspects with competitive aims and showing the courage to be oneself. To that end, these philosophical concepts were defined and examined in terms of their impact on the lives of individuals in the history of philosophy and today. Besides drawing upon an amalgam of various philosophical strains, the study immensely benefited from experimental studies conducted in this area since these concepts are closely related to human biology, psychology and socio-cultural structures. Section 1 examines concepts such as work, occupation, profession and career as well as the relationship between career choices and human nature. The section poses the question of `Can people be whatever they want to be?` Theories of human nature are surveyed within that conceptual framework and divided into three groups: 1) Human nature is innate and unchangeable (`nature` approach). 2) Human nature is not innate, it is constructed (`nurture` approach). 3) Human nature is innate and it develops under different influences (`biopsychosocial` approach). Those who espouse the first school of thought maintain that human nature derives from instincts, evolution and genes. And since human nature is innate and unchangeable, reprogramming human beings is out of the question, which, quite naturally so, makes it impossible for one to throw into the equation natural choices. Those who espouse the second school of thought maintain that humans are not born with an innate nature; in fact, according to this strain of thought, human nature is flexible enough to be molded into shape. The followers of this approach believe that if human nature is something which can be constructed, then it can be assumed that humans can make choices without being subject to any sort of restrictions (with reference to those who dwell on the importance of social environment and culture if the social environment and the culture are convenient). This assumption left no room for common ground that would make people alienated or passionate and enthusiastic about their jobs. According to those who support the third school of thought, there is an innate human nature which can still be molded into shape through interaction with the social and cultural environment. According to this approach which is named as `biopsychosocial approach`, personal growth is underpinned by biological (such as genes, prenatal environment, hormones), psychological (gene-environment interaction, beliefs, feelings, expectations) and socio-cultural (parental influence, peer influence, cultural norms) dimensions. This approach maintained that if humans are not empty slates and human nature can be nourished through innate biological elements as well as psychological and socio-cultural interaction, then a common ground can be found which can make people feel alienated or passionate about their jobs. This study adopts as its theoretical basis this particular approach, whose assumptions have been supported by scientific evidence. Even if human beings may be molded into shape through social and cultural interaction, the assumption of an all-encompassing, one-size fits all happiness criteria is not so outlandish since there is an innate human nature. Section two examined the concept of happiness as it developed throughout the history of philosophy. The concept of happiness manifested itself as eudaimonism. Eudaimonism is a moral philosophy that defines right action as that which leads to the `well-being` of the individual. It sees well-being as an objective that underlies all human action. Furthermore, this point of view established a relationship between well-being and virtue and saw well-being as an objective that can be attained through education and training. Beyond that, Eudaimonism has embraced certain values of hedonism through the course of the history of philosophy, engaged itself with the Christian and Muslim concept of afterlife happiness and switched from individualism to utilitarianism in the New Age. On the other hand, experimental studies conducted on the basis of philosophical theories had come to validate most philosophical theories on happiness. In 1970s, psychologists who were struggling to come up with a definition of happiness started evaluating individual happiness not in terms of eudaimonic values (whether one has led a praise-worthy life or not) but rather in terms of well-being; subsequently, they coined the term `subjective well-being`, which refers to the preponderance of positive sentiments over negative ones in an individual's life. In that sense, it was possible for people to feel happy and express it. According to research studies, optimistic and open-hearted people, people who are able to build friendships or enjoy a happy marriage, people who utilize their skills in their social and professional lives, who profess religious beliefs or who enjoy a high level of self-confidence in individual cultures or people who enjoy high degrees of social acceptance in collectivist cultures as well as those who have regular sleep patterns and do regular sport are more inclined to feel happy. In these studies, family relationships, friendship bonds and social relations emerge as factors with the largest impact on human happiness. While, on the income side of things, earning enough income to make one a member of the middle class and afford basic necessities contribute to happiness, any income earned above that level does not necessarily contribute to human happiness on its own. While leading a virtuous life kept unhappiness at bay, it also promoted happiness. It also emerged that work has an impact on individual levels of happiness not just due to its wage-earning aspect but also its positive influence on self-respect and social relations. What also matters in that respect is the type of job that one does. Jobs which do not promote self-management skills caused people to feel spiritless and worthless. Besides, personal targets also had an impact on happiness; individuals with family life who pursue selfless aspirations are more likely to lead fulfilling and meaningful lives. Scientists have posited different theories with regards to what kind of jobs make people happier on the strength of results gleaned from research studies on people and work. Combining these theories and the research results, a list has been prepared containing the qualities a job must have to make one happy. While it is only a tentative list, it is agreed that one can earn certain insights by assessing to what degree the listed qualities align with his choice of work before making a career choice. The list contains the following qualities: 1) Autonomy; having control over one's work, 2) mastership; continuous development in a professional area, 3) having a purpose/transcendence; working for a greater purpose than ourselves, 4) enabling the individual to make use of the virtues he/she is talented in and the ways through which he/she may access them (signature strengths), 5) enabling the individual to fully concentrate on a subject to the point of exclusion of other things (flow), to work hard effortlessly and get feedback, 6) earning enough income to make one a member of the middle class and afford basic necessities, 7)enabling the individual to have enough spare time to foster social and familial relationships, 8)enabling the individual to pursue altruistic aims instead of competitive actions. The study then continued to try to ascertain a common ground with regards to choices that enable people to choose fulfilling careers following a theoretical encapsulation of human nature and desirable job qualities, bringing the concept of choice or preference into focus in Section three as implied by Aristotle's `Prohairesis`. Choices have been divided into two groups: daily life choices and choices which determine one's course of life such as occupational/professional choices. It is also mentioned that career choice, in fact, involves making a package of choices and that it may be difficult to take them back once they have been made. The process of making a healthy choice, on such an important subject, was examined via Aristotelian `prohairesis`. Prohairesis used to be purely considered in terms of reasoning and cogitation while choices arrived at as a consequence of technical reasoning, such as in mathematics, was usually not considered within this framework. In that regard, career choices were regarded as a component of prohairesis. Within that framework, the process of making a fulfilling career choice has been described as follows, taking inspiration from the prohairesis process: 1)People who stand on the verge of making a career choice should not rush into decisions; they must think thoroughly and be aware that they are making a choice that `brings their future into the present`. 2) Whilst making choices, the individual should think and act originally, test his knowledge of the good and review his assumptions carefully and not confuse them with absolute reality. 3) An individual's career choice must reflect his personality; therefore, the individual must know himself and his planned choice of work well and he must evaluate the congruity between his nature and the desired profession. 4) An individual making a career choice must be both beware of the reasons for his choice and make projections about the consequences thereof. Following the theoretical conceptualization of the process of career choosing with inspiration from the prohairesis concept, the study went on to examine the various aspects of the same process. It has been seen fit for the purposes of this study that closely related aspects involved in the process of career choosing should be evaluated together. Accordingly, aspects such as cogitating, testing one's knowledge of the good and knowing oneself have been examined altogether under the heading `knowing oneself` while aspects such as knowing the profession, being aware of the reasons for one's career choices and making projections about the consequences of one's professional choices have been examined under the heading `reasons and consequences of choices`. The study looks at the concept of `knowing oneself` from the perspective of antique age philosophers. Knowing oneself has been mentioned as a life-long process which does not end at a definite point. According to Socrates, the individual has to carefully examine his own life to attain self-knowledge; knowing oneself entails knowing one's soul and being wise. Aristoteles, on the other hand, mentions that knowing what is good does not automatically translate into good actions since one has to learn to master himself by practice and commit ethical deeds by training his will and resisting his urges. Aristoteles points out that human potential may be converted into deeds when one perceives his own true nature and that wisdom shows man what his aim is and the tools to achieve it. The concept of true human nature was inevitably evocative of the concept `potential`. What is more, the concept seemed to be in concordance with the assumption that man has a nature that is both innate and susceptible to outward influences. The study drew attention to the significance of the individual contemplating questions such as `who am I?` and `what kind of person do I want to be in the future?` within the context of potential and self-knowledge. The study also mentions that while ruminating on such questions, one can freely engage in conversations with friends or experts trying to find answers and make use of individual assessment tools. In the following pages, the study dwelled on possible risks one may encounter unless he shows any effort to know himself besides the concepts of `culture robot` and building a `personality`. It has been argued that an individual not involved in any efforts at attaining self-knowledge may be susceptible to making random choices in life or being led astray by targets, chosen only because they are socially acceptable. On the other hand, it has also been argued that if an individual living a choice which does not reflect himself, continues making the effort to know himself, he may still have the opportunity to form a conscious intent to choose a suitable career path and use that intent later in life to make wiser choices that reflect his true personality, even though he may not have a meaningful and fulfilling work life at that moment.Afterwards, the focus shifts to knowing one's job/profession, the reasons behind the chosen career path and anticipating the possible consequences thereof within the context of the concept `prohairesis`. Thereafter, it has been mentioned that knowing one's job/profession is outside the scope of this study despite a few passing remarks with regards to the benefits of internship and building dialogues with people from the industry in terms of getting an idea of the nature of the profession. It has also been argued that making an informed career choice is part of deliberating upon that choice and that people are probably aware of the reasons behind their career choices, even though they may not have deliberated on it at length or they may have found themselves in tough circumstances preventing such deliberation. Furthermore, it has been stated that there can be no single reason behind a career choice since choosing one's profession involves making a package of choices. It has been argued that one prioritizes one particular reason over numerous others whilst making a final career choice and that the outweighing reason shall be the first `something` in the `something done for something`, an expression coined by Aristoteles. It has also been stated that this does not mean the total exclusion of other reasons, which are then relegated to a secondary position and that job/profession choice has been assumed to be divided into two groups for clarity of thought and expression. These are: 1) Choices where internal and altruistic aims (realizing one's potential, contributing to society, creating family time) were prioritized. In that case, `something done for something` refers to being a doctor to help others. 2) Choices where external aspects and competitive aims (such as power/reputation/money/gaining status) were prioritized. In that case, `something done for something` refers to being a doctor to acquire wealth. Although it was made a binary distinction concerning the reasons behind of the work choices of a person, it was also foreseen that this person would not totally exclude the reason which is not prioritized or this person would not prioritize the same reason throughout his entire life. Even so, it has been argued that since it reflects a basis perspective on life, prioritization of a particular choice over others could be anticipated in an individual's life so long as one does not find himself in trying circumstances or go through big changes.With regards to anticipating the consequences of one's career/profession choices, it has discussed to what extent this is possible. `Systems Theory Framework of Career Development` saw career development as the product of complicated and interrelated systems interacting with one another. Additionally, this theory posits the idea that career development refers to a dynamic process which shows variations depending on time and chance. It followed from that reasoning that expecting individuals interacting with such a complicated system to make anticipations about the consequences of their career choices was not very realistic. However, the study maintains that this does not necessarily render irrelevant the act of thinking on the consequences of one's choices. Within that context, the study examined the relationship between prioritized aspects whilst making a career choice and its consequences. Further the possible consequences of prioritizing internal aspects with altruistic aims or external aspects with competitive aims were evaluated via a letter sent in respect of the profession choice of 23 years old, civil engineering student young woman who most probably made her profession choice with the forcing of her family and prioritizing the external aspects with competitive aims. Four years after making her career choice, this young woman started saying `I do not want to be a construction engineer. What is worse, I do not have the slightest idea what profession I want to be in. I am totally confused and cannot gather my thought together.` Thankfully, one's career choices are not restricted by one profession. This young woman still has the chance to undo the negative consequences of her ill-thought career choice by involving herself in a brand-new career selection process and developing virtuous attributes such as ambition, perseverance, patience and courage. Following from that reasoning, the focus shifted to Rollo May's concept of `showing the courage to be one self`.May's courage does not refer to the courage needed in warfare; he describes courage as `the capacity to confront anxiety which matures as one attains freedom.` Furthermore, May's `hero` does not refer to persons who commit extraordinarily fearless acts; it rather refers to persons who show the courage to say `this is my being` through their heroic essence and acts. According to May, courage is a choice and there is nothing courageous about choices which are made saying `I had no other choice.` Based on the above-mentioned statements in the young woman's letter, the study dwelled on the relationship between May's `showing the courage to be oneself` and `knowing oneself`. The study arrived at the conclusion that an individual who has attained a certain level of self-knowledge and who shows the courage to be himself by focusing on the nourishment of his inner attributes can bring his choices into life through making choices that reflect his professional/occupational proclivities, only if those conditions which impact his life but over which he has no control are favorable to his aspirations. As MacIntyre mentions with reference to Aristoteles, individuals who are not able to show the courage to be themselves, will not be able to convert their potential into deeds, will get frustrated in the process and fail in their attempts to reach happiness despite their efforts.In light of all these assessments, the study concluded that those individuals who deliberate on their choices in their life journey, who seek the knowledge of the good in a bid to attain self-knowledge, who are aware of their choices and the reasons behind them, who evaluate the possible consequences of their choices are more likely to become the happy person in the sense described by Aristotle, as long as they prioritize internal and selfless components of value and show the courage to be themselves and so long as external life aspects over which they are able to exercise little control are favorable to their aspirations. 78

This research focuses in training adults. We question the impact of the dynamics developed while they learn together. Our research was conducted with 24 people who followed at least one internship between 2008s and 2011. We met the participants within the framework of a semi-directive interview. This technique was developed from a model which consider attitude and behavior in respect to the Self (Hamel, et al., 1999). The analysis made in a socioconstructivist epistemological frame, has contributed to underline a number of ideas which supports the necessity of the internships as a space for the acquisition of skills, and other ideas which indicate that " silent transformations " (Jullien, 2009) can occur on the " growth of adult life " (Bédard, 1987) also thanks to the internships. The diverse elements of our research allowed us to show that the training potentially contributes to the construction of identity of the subject., Cette recherche s’intéresse à la Formation Professionnelle Continue des adultes. Elle questionne la portée de la dynamique qui se crée pendant qu’ils apprennent et se perfectionnent à l’occasion de stages de courte durée. Notre recherche a été réalisée auprès de 24 professionnels du secteur sanitaire et médico-social qui ont suivi au moins un stage entre les années 2008 et 2011. Nous les avons rencontrés dans le cadre d’un entretien semi-directif dont le guide a été élaboré à partir d’un modèle permettant de considérer l’attitude et le comportement en référence au Soi (Hamel et al., 1999). A partir d’un cadre épistémologique socioconstructiviste, l’analyse a contribué à relever non seulement, nombre d’idées forces corroborant la nécessité des stages comme espaces d’acquisition de compétences, mais aussi certaines indiquant des « transformations silencieuses » (Jullien, 2009) intervenant sur la « croissance de la vie adulte » (Bédard, 1987). Nous avons tenté de modéliser en quoi la FPC participe potentiellement de la construction identitaire du sujet.

La Critique de la raison pure est traversée de part en part par une analogie juridique dont l’étude peut enrichir la compréhension de l’œuvre. Il est ainsi question, dès la préface, d’une raison qui se juge elle-même devant son propre tribunal, ce qui constituera le point de départ de notre analyse. Or, ce tribunal très particulier doit se fonder sur une connaissance de soi approfondie de la raison. Cette entreprise est de fait réalisée au fil des développements de la Critique. Le rôle bien particulier joué à cet égard par les trois déductions présentes dans l’œuvre sera dûment examiné. On verra par ailleurs que la déduction doit elle-même être considérée plutôt comme procédure d’inspiration juridique que comme inférence, tout en conservant pourtant un statut de preuve philosophique. Les nombreuses allusions juridiques effectuées par Kant au fil de l’œuvre seront ainsi mises à profit dans le cadre de cette interprétation., A legal analogy runs through the Critique of Pure Reason, and studying it can shed light on the work. The metaphor of the “tribunal of reason”, first introduced in the Preface, will thus be the starting-point for our analysis. Due to its very nature, this tribunal must be based upon reason’s in-depth self-knowledge – a task to be accomplished over the course of the Critique. The special part played in this regard by the book’s three deductions will be thoroughly examined. In addition, we will see that a deduction itself has more to do with a legally inspired procedure than with an inference, while it nevertheless remains a legitimate philosophical proof. Kant’s frequent legal allusions throughout the text will therefore constitute the basis for our interpretation.

La question de la normalisation dans l’enseignement des langues est posée au sein de l’Espace européen d’enseignement supérieur, dont la réforme LMD pour l’université et les nouveaux Programmes pédagogiques nationaux pour les IUT sont les reflets. L’élément-clé de ce processus de normalisation est le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues, publié par le Conseil de l’Europe en 2001. Le contexte culturel de chaque pays joue un rôle non négligeable dans sa mise en œuvre ; la réponse en France concernant l’enseignement supérieur semble actuellement hésitante. Nous proposons une analyse culturelle du contexte français pour mieux cerner les raisons d’une telle réaction. Caractérisé par plusieurs paradoxes, ce contexte peut faire envisager la manière d’aborder le Cadre soit comme un cercle vicieux, soit comme un cercle vertueux. Nous proposons enfin plusieurs pistes pour faciliter dans le contexte français la mise en œuvre de cet outil européen, clé de voûte des certifications en langues devenues obligatoires pour nos diplômés. The question of standardisation in language teaching is raised within the European higher education area ; provisions in the French Bachelor-Master-Doctorate reform for universities and the new national pedagogical programmes for university institutes of technology are concrete reflections of same. The key element in this standardisation process is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, published by the Council of Europe in 2001. The cultural context of each country strongly impacts implementation of the Framework; the French response in higher education has thus far seemed hesitant. A cultural analysis of this context is proposed to better understand the reasons behind such a reaction. A number of innate paradoxes will be brought to light, leading one to imagine either a vicious circle approach to the Framework or a virtuous one. Finally, several suggestions will be made in the French context to facilitate implementation of this European document, the keystone for language certification now required of our graduates.

Une certaine tradition philosophique veut que si l'action humaine peut être dite intentionnelle, c'est qu'une intention vient justement qualifer ou causer cette action. Par conséquent, cette tradition veut également que les intentions - dans la mesure où nous les désignons couramment dans le langage - soient identifiables, l'usage du substantif justifiant alors la présence de l'objet. Dès lors, c'est la manière dont ces intentions seront identifiées qui permettra de distinguer diverses écoles ou courants de pensée dans l'analyse du mental. Or, malgré leur volonté de s'écarter du modèle cartésien des substances, ces différents modèles ont une grande difficulté à éliminer de leur théorisation toute présupposition métaphysique quant à la « nature » du mental. D'après le modèle cartésien, en effet, la pensée est capable d'un retour sur soi, d'une réflexion, mais elle s'auto-constitue aussi comme objet (d'observation, de connaissance) au sens propre. Elle est une « substance pensante ». Cette réification de la pensée a donné lieu à une tradition « mentaliste », qui identifie généralement certains « états mentaux » à des causes de nos actions ou à d'autres « états mentaux ». Ces états ne seraient connaissables que sur le mode de l'introspection, c'est-à- dire par l'observation en première personne de mes contenus mentaux. L'article vise à montrer que ces conceptions sont fondées sur une erreur réaliste : il convient de se détourner de la tentation consistant à réifier les concepts psychologiques en faisant des objets éthérés, une âme, un esprit, un mécanisme psycho-physique, un pur physiologisme, etc. C'est au contraire dans et par leur signification que nous devons éclairer et apprendre quelque chose de ces concepts et de la façon dont ils parlent des actions humaines. L'analyse proposée par Anscombe dans son ouvrage, L'intention, témoigne de cette possibilité. Cette article commence par montrer les faiblesses de la tradition cartésienne et de ses influences implicites sur les théorisations actuelles du mental, il souligne en quoi certaines thèses d'Anscombe permettent de se démarquer des conceptions mentalistes de l'esprit et de l'action, et enfin en quoi cette analyse permet de spécifier une nouvelle forme de connaissance de soi.

Depuis Platon, le miroir fait office d’objet métaphorique symbolisant pour la tradition philosophique l’accès à la connaissance de soi. Il se trouve ainsi associé à la vertu. Mais une historiette rapportée par Sénèque dans ses Questions sur la nature illustre une tout autre utilisation de cet objet, qui devient un outil de perversion. Le chapitre qu’il consacre à Hostius Quadra fait la démonstration de l’usage détourné et perverti que l’on peut faire d’un précepte philosophique, transformé en invitation à l’abjection. Since Plato, the mirror has been serving as the metaphorical object symbolizing for the philosophical tradition the access to self-knowledge. It thus becomes associated with virtue. But a little story reported by Seneca in his Questions on nature illustrates another use of that object as it becomes an instrument of perversion. The chapter he devotes to Hostius Quadra demonstrates the devious and perverted use that can be made of a philosophical precept, transformed into an invitation to abjection.

This study aims to estimate the suitability of the application of skills assessment device and development of its psychological effects on employees, in a country where it is not practiced, and where the work environment and the culture is different from here. That is to say, the application of this device as an instrument for human resources in a car manufacturing company in Iran, in a different sociocultural context of the Western model. For this, we made a longitudinal study in two stages with five and a half months apart, before T1 and T2 after the skills assessment, with two employee groups : an experimental group that has done the skills assessment (n=32), and a control group (n=30). Results show an enhanced level of self-esteem, better self-knowledge, better stress management and increased motivation to work. We tried from a relatively small sample to demonstrate that the approach of professional adult guidance can be implemented under certain conditions to different civilizational contexts. Its application can be considered as an alternative support and assistance for employees with another culture. It is from the effects of this device that our study contributes to the plurality of scientific knowledge in different sociocultural context.; Cette étude a pour objet d'évaluer la pertinence de l'application du dispositif de bilan de compétences et l'évolution de ses effets psychologiques pour les salariés, dans un pays où il n'est pas pratiqué, et où l'environnement professionnel et socio-culturel diffère du modèle occidental. Ce dispositif a été appliqué en tant qu'outil au service des ressources humaines au sein d'une entreprise de construction automobile en Iran. Pour cela, nous avons fait une étude longitudinale en deux temps avec cinq mois et demi d'intervalle, T1 avant et T2 après le bilan, avec deux groupes de salariés : un groupe expérimental qui a fait le bilan (n=32), et un groupe contrôle (n=30). Les résultats révèlent un renforcement du niveau de l'estime de soi, une meilleure auto-connaissance, une amélioration de la gestion du stress et une augmentation de la motivation au travail. Nous avons tenté à partir d'un échantillon relativement modeste de démontrer que cette démarche de professionnalisation d'orientation des adultes peut être transposée dans certaines conditions aux contextes civilisationnels différents. Son application peut être considérée comme une alternative de soutien et d'aide pour les salariés. C'est à partir des effets de ce dispositif que notre étude contribue au cumul de connaissances scientifiques, dans des contextes socioculturels différents.

Partant de l'idée énoncée par le philosophe Charles Taylor, selon laquelle les êtres humains sont « des animaux capables d'auto-interprétation », cet article vise à comprendre le rôle constitutif de l'auto-interprétation dans la connaissance de soi. Une conception satisfaisante de l'auto-interprétation devrait à la fois rendre compte de l'autorité de la connaissance de soi en première personne et satisfaire les exigences du réalisme ordinaire. Si la version constitutiviste de l'auto-interprétation semble incompatible avec de telles exigences, c'est parce qu'elle considère ce pouvoir constituant comme le privilège du sujet de modeler ses états mentaux au gré de sa volonté. Pour autant, il est possible de conserver un rôle constitutif à l'auto-interprétation en évitant toute implication volontariste et en maintenant une certaine indépendance des contenus mentaux du sujet envers lui-même. C'est ce que proposent les philosophes américains Richard Moran et David Finkelstein, le premier, en redéfinissant l'activité d'auto-interprétation en termes de croyance impliquant l'adhésion du sujet à ses attitudes mentales. Considérant le sujet en tant qu'agent responsable de ses attitudes, Moran défend une conception cognitive et engagée de l'interprétation, un point de vue pratique du sujet sur lui-même. La délibération fournit ainsi les raisons d'adopter une croyance, un désir, une émotion,... raisons qui justifient en même temps l'auto-interprétation. Moins attaché à la valeur cognitive de l'auto-interprétation, Finkelstein développe également une conception pratique de la connaissance de soi, fondée sur la fonction expressive des auto-attributions et où l'auto-interprétation a valeur de contexte de cela même qu'elle interprète. In recent years, the philosopher Charles Taylor offered to define human beings as « self-interpreting animals », meaning that self-interpretation is constitutive of self-knowledge. However, it is difficult how we should understand this constitutive role and it is true that a correct conception of self-interpretation should both give an account of first-person authority in self-knowledge and satisfy the minimal requirements of ordinary realism, in order for self-knowledge to be substantial. It appears that Taylor's constitutivism cannot satisfy such requirements since it says that a person's self-interpretation constitutes its object in the sense that the person's own interpretation of his state suffices for its being that very way. However, rejecting the voluntarist implications of the idea of constitution does not mean rejecting self-interpretation as constitutive, and it is possible to keep the idea of such a constitutive relation between the subject and his own mental life while accepting a certain independence of one's mental contents. This line of thought is to be found for instance in Richard Moran and David Finkelstein. According to Moran, we need a new definition of the very notion of interpretation, which does not refer to an ordinary and indifferent activity, but to a cognitive one. Hence his suggestion to think of interpretation as a belief implying the agent's endorsement of his own mental attitudes. Focusing on agency, Moran offers to adopt a practical conception of self-knowledge according to which the person's deliberation provides him with reasons to believe, desire, feel,..., such reasons also justifying his self-interpretation. Finkelstein's point is not the cognitive dimension of interpretation, rather its expressive function. He develops a practical conception of self-knowledge based on the subject's expressions, where self-interpretation also plays a contextual role.