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In the discussion on the rational choice model of individual behavior, a growing emphasis has recently been placed on the importance of intrinsic motivation. Contrary to assumptions made in the standard economic literature, it is suggested that an individual's motivation to act may not be exclusively determined by external influences (incentives, restrictions) and (given) personal preferences, but, in addition, depends on intrinsically anchored ethical preferences. Intrinsic motivation may diminish if parallel external incentives, such as rewards or orders, come into play: Insofar as external intervention weakens the corresponding intrinsic motivation to act, the (normal) effect of relative prices is opposed by a (countervailing) crowding-out effect of intrinsic motivation. The effect of (over-) crowding-out has been thematized especially in the context of environmental policy. It was suggested that subsidies may support intrinsic incentives whereas taxes and licences (especially though command-and-control measures) tend to undermine them. This paper critically analyzes the impact of intrinsic behavior considerations on the evaluation of environmental policy instruments. It is argued that, if at all, economists' standard recommendations for policy design with respect to subsidies need not be revised even if intrinsic motivation plays any role for the agents' environmental bevavior. Furthermore, command-and-control policy might rather support than weaken intrinsic motivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental resources are limited and therefore policy-makers have to determine the best allocation of resources amongst competing alternative uses. The question arises of which criteria environmental policy decisions ought to be based. This paper suggests economics to help solve environmental problems. This economic approach requires the monetary valuation both of benefits of protecting or enhancing environmental resources and opportunity costs or benefits forgone of alternative uses. Whereas the monetary valuation of costs is not too complicated and therefore not controversial in most cases, the monetary assessment of environment-based benefits requires the application of non-market valuation tools. The comparison of monetary costs and benefits contributes to deciding upon environmental trade-off alternatives. The authors discuss the potential use and problems associated with non-market valuation as a tool for environmental policy-consulting. Not only are alternative approaches to natural resource assessment discussed but also the lack of acceptance of monetary environmental valuation techniques in the German-speaking world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses energy policy in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, in the second half of the 1970s, particularly with regard to nuclear and coal power. The author focuses primarily on the political dimension of debates about energy policy, both within the state government and in public opinion. Issues addressed include the interplay between economic policy, security concerns, and environmental protection, the anti-atomic energy movement in the state and in Germany more broadly, and the effect of nuclear accidents such as the one in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in 1979 on the political debate in Germany.

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At the European Council's December 2008 summit and with the European Parliament's decision a week later, a political agreement was reached on the Commission's Climate-Energy package of January 2008, which will profoundly shape Europe's climate policy for the next decade. Europe is therefore the first actor in the run up to the global climate negotiations in Copenhagen to come forward with a detailed program confirmed by parliament. Center of attention in the negotiations was the EU's emissions trading system. From 2013 this will be centrally administered by the European Commission and so guarantee the same conditions throughout Europe. In order to get all the member states to agree, however, the French Council presidency had to include numerous derogations in a compromise package: the promised reduction targets were not changed, but the effectiveness of the instruments was weakened. Alongside the Directive on emissions trading a decision was passed that imposes limits on member states' discharge of greenhouse gases in the sectors not covered by the emissions trading regime. These targets are legally binding by 2020. Though only mentioned in passing in the media a Directive on renewable energy was passed that for the first time includes all sectors - that is, electricity generation, transport, and heating / cooling - and also lays down binding national levels by 2020. Alongside these central aspects of future European climate policy outline conditions and financing mechanisms for carbon capture and storage technology and for emissions caps for new cars were legally enshrined. While its final compromise means that the European Union formally retains its leadership role in the campaign against climate change, at the same time it has left a number of losers at various levels. One of them is the European Parliament. Under pressure of time and the member states' entrenchment, MEPs were confronted with a matter of conscience but were severely constrained in bringing to bear their own long nurtured and ambitious position. The developing countries may be regarded as the second losers. They are largely innocent victims of anthropogenic climate change, yet for the most part they are excluded from relief measures within the framework of Western climate policy. The EU heads of state and government denied them financial aid from the emissions trading system and technological support. Despite its flaws, the scope of the compromise package is of enormous significance and its targets are ambitious. Europe is therefore entitled to claim its exemplary role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the topic of environmental protection in West Germany. The author states that environmental protection is necessary, even if it is costly. The author writes that jobs will be created and health problems and quality of life will be improved. The author presents suggestions that can help ease the financial burden of protecting the environment.

Duties and taxes on cars are an important source of revenue for European governments and the tax systems are also designed with the goal of achieving environmental policy objectives. A systematic and quantitative comparison of passenger car taxation in 30 European countries shows significant differences among them. However, in almost every country, the use of vehicles with diesel engines is taxed less than that of cars with gasoline engines, and the share of fixed charges (on acquisition, registration, and ownership) is higher than the share of use-related levies. Germany has shifted its position with regard to both types of tax and now ranks low in terms of the overall tax burden. However, the German motor vehicle tax is neither fiscally profitable nor does it have the desired effect. Energy tax rates have remained the same since 2003 and its real value has declined by a fifth in real terms. With this in mind, both types of taxes are in need of reform and increasing the diesel tax should be a priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Der Moderne Staat is the property of Verlag Barbara Budrich GmbH and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The access to mineral occurrences becomes more and more difficult, mostly because of their neglectance in land use planning. The prime purpose of the Austrian Mineral Resources Plan is the identification of mineral occurrences, the harmonization of mineral occurrences with other relevant conflicting land use regulations and to safeguard mineral protection zones in land use planning as a proper base for future generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports on the quality of social politics in Sweden. The author notes that the Swedish industry is doing very well, but there is a big problem with the unemployment of youth. There is a significant portion of the population that feels that the government should create an environmental policy. The funding of the Swedish service pension is also discussed.