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Copyright of Der Schmerz is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Der Schmerz is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Headaches can be so severe that patients and doctors often fear life-threatening underlying cerebral pathologies. The spectrum of causes of headache is very heterogeneous and ranges from harmless situations to severe diseases, so that it is very difficult to consider all differential diagnoses simultaneously; however, a few targeted questions and physical examinations are sufficient to be able to make a better classification of the leading symptom headache. The following article serves as a quick guide for identification of patients at risk. It describes basic findings, red flags and specials warning signs that must immediately lead to emergency admission for further diagnostics.

Headache disorders are the most occuring symptoms in human population. Basis for a successful therapy of headaches is a definite diagnosis, which needs in turn valid criteria for the graduation of headaches. Corresponding to the classification of the International Headache Society (IHS) especially relevant questions about patient's history and clinical examination lead to a diagnosis., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Chapter 4 of the International Classification of Headaches contains a group of clinically very heterogeneous primary headache forms. Little is known about the pathogenesis of these headache types and therapy is usually based on isolated case reports and uncontrolled studies. The forms include primary stabbing headache, primary cough headache, primary exertional headache, primary headache associated with sexual activity, hypnic headache, primary thunderclap headache, hemicrania continua and the new daily persistent headache. Some of these headache forms may be of a symptomatic nature and require careful examination, imaging and further tests. Primary and secondary headache forms must be carefully distinguished.

Whilst headache disorders belong to the most common health problems of the younger population, the occurrence diminishes with advancing age. However, in individual cases headaches may be especially severe in old age significantly reducing the quality of life. Typical causes of headache in the elderly are giant cell arteritis (arteritis temporalis), cranial neuralgia and hypnic headache. The incidence of intracranial mass lesions also increases with age. In addition to these secondary forms of headache, the typical primary headache disorders migraine, tension headache and cluster headache may also persist in the elderly. In drug treatment of headaches in the elderly, an impairment of renal and/or hepatic function has to be taken in account, as should be the potential multimorbidity of elderly patients.

Headaches are one of the most frequent outpatient complaints. Patients may describe a symptom indicating an underlying disease, which can range from an ordinary indisposition to a medical emergency. Despite these secondary headaches, there exist idiopathic forms, such as migraine and tension type headaches, which represent the most common types. In order to develop a specific treatment, the diagnosis of headaches and the knowledge of their etiology are very important for physicians. While headaches remain a neurological domain, facial pain syndromes are often seen and treated in other medical fields. Here clinically important facial pain syndromes are reported from a neurological point of view.

Following the new IHS-classification, cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania and SUNCT syndrome are included into the classification as trigemino-autonomic cephalgias (TAC's). Clinically, they share strictly halfsided head pain with autonomic symptoms. The headaches often occur during particular sleep stages and are associated with other chronobiologic factors. Broadly the management of TAC's comprises acute and prophylactic treatment. Paroxysmal hemicrania and hemicrana continua have a very robust response to indomethacin. Acute cluster headache attacks can be treated with inhalation of oxygen or serotonin agonists, whereas verapamil is the drug of choice in the prophylactic treatment. This review covers the clinical picture and therapeutic options. Allthough studies following the criteria of evidence based medicine (EBM) are rare, most patients can be treated sufficiently.

Chronic daily headache is a frequent problem which affects 3-5% of the population. Until the 2nd edition of the IHS headache classification, the diagnosis of chronic headache was synonymous with the diagnosis of chronic tension type headache. Now one has to differentiate, not only in symptomatic headache, but also between other primary headache syndromes, such as chronic migraine, hemicrania continua and acute persisting daily headache. Epidemiological studies point to a particular importance of chronic migraine and headache due to chronic analgetica use, since both types of headache are responsible for more than 60% of all cases with chronic headache. Although the mechanisms which cause chronification of headache are not well understood, the new headache classification prompts some direct therapeutical consequences: 1) the indication for drug withdrawal and 2) the indication for a migraine preventive therapy. In general, as with other chronic pain syndromes, there is increasing evidence that a multimodal therapy, consisting of patient education, behavioral therapy and pharmacological therapy, is more successful than a singular therapy.

The diagnosis of headache is nowadays based on the classification criteria of the International Headache Society (IHS). This classification can be seen in a historical context with a very first version published by an ad-hoc-committee of the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness in the USA. In 1988 the first IHS version appeared, and this was revised in its current version in 2003. The classification is divided into primary (i.e., idiopathic) and secondary (i.e., symptomatic) headache and into cranial neuralgias and facial pain. The classification is based on the description of the headache features and thus a phenomenological rather than an etiological classification. Furthermore, not the patient as a subject but the headache as a clinical entity is classified. Therefore, some patients can have more than one headache diagnosis. In total, 14 different headache groups and more than 170 headache types are separated. The changes compared to the last classification (such as introduction of chronic migraine and of several new rare idiopathic headache disorders) and the perspectives for future classifications (e.g., problems of genetic classification) are discussed.

About 50 patients contact an ophthalmologist every month because of headache. Only 20 % can be helped by ophthalmological therapeutic efforts. The vast majority of those patients suffer from migraine. This contribution gives an overview of the most common causes of headache and their therapy. The ophthalmologist should not only exclude an ophthalmological cause of the headache but also contribute to making the correct diagnosis and initiating further treatment.

One of the most common forms of primary headache is tension headache with a dull pressure-like pain on both sides of the head. In addition to treatment with acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol or ibuprofen, the application of cold and relaxation techniques have proven to be of use. Chronic forms are treated with tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline. Unilateral cluster headache responds to inhalation of oxygen and subcutaneous and intranasal treatment with tryptan. By way of prophylaxis, prednisone, verapamil, lithium carbonate and topiramate are applied. For persistent drug-induced headache, withdrawal is the first-line treatment. The more rare forms of nonsymptomatic headache include paroxysmal hemicrania and trigeminal neuralgia, in the prevention of which carbamazepine, phenytoin or oxcarbazepine have proven of value.

Headache is one of the most common reasons for a patient to consult the doctor. Of prime importance are the correct differential diagnosis and effective treatment. A differentiation is made between primary and secondary headache. In the international classification, the primary headache syndromes include migraine with and without an aura, tension type headache, headache associated with misuse of analgesics, cluster headache, and a number of rare forms of headache with no structural lesion. The secondary headache syndromes occur symptomatically as sequelae of underlying disease, the spectrum of causes covering more than 300 different disorders. In patients with headache of unclear genesis, careful history-taking and thorough physical examination should be followed by a further diagnostic work-up.

Chronic primary headache has a considerable impact on the quality of life. To date, this impact has been evaluated by measurements of the general pain specific impairment of the quality of life. Headache specific measurements of quality of life or of disability caused by the headache are still missing for the German language. In America, a headache specific questionnaire, the "Headache Disability Inventory" (HDI), has been evaluated which is used in the presented study to create a German version, the "Inventar zur Beeinträchtigung durch Kopfschmerzen" (IBK). 94 consecutive patients with a primary headache disorder (59 female, 35 male; mean age 40 +/- 12 years) were examined. Cronbach's alpha was a = 0.90, the test-retest-reliability after three months was r = 0.87. An analysis of subscales for emotional and functional disability showed similar values for the internal consistency and the test-retest-reliability of these subscales. The scores of the different headache types did not differ significantly. In post-hoc-analyses, however, cluster headache showed higher disability scores than migraine both in the total scale and in the subscales. The total score of the IBK was significantly correlated with the number of headache days per month (r = 0.41; p < 0.0003) but not with the duration of disease or other demographic parameters. The IBK is the first German headache specific measurement of certain aspects of the quality of life in chronic headache patients. It can be used in clinical settings to evaluate the current state of the patient or to monitor treatment and it can be used for scientific studies.

Chronic and episodic headaches in children and adolescents are a common problem. Therefore, the growing resistance against frequent use of drugs is quite justified. This study was initiated in search for other helpful therapeutic approaches. The aim was to compare the effect of 5 sessions of hypnosis/ self-hypnosis given at weekly intervals and lasting half an hour each with two psychological treatments requiring the same amount of time, namely behavior therapy and talks to the doctor. Despite the small number of patients, both types of treatments were effective. However, the hypnosis/self-hypnosis seems to be superior not only in terms of frequency and intensity of the headaches but also concerning the patients' ability to keep their headaches and their well-being under control.

Our multidimensional classification of headache uses on the one hand the phenomenological main criteria. Id est: attack-featured headaches versus the more permanent headaches. On the other hand the main etiological factors have to be traced: heredity, vasomotor-dysfunction, disturbances of cervical spine, metabolic disturbances, psychodynamics. As the majority of 90% chronical headaches have a multifactorial etiology, these factors have to be taken into consideration one by one. Usually more than one is to be found. Such differential diagnosis forms already a clear way into differentiated therapy. Our classification is conform to patient and to daily medical practice, easy to execute and, last not least, has a statistically proven small inter-examiner variation. The nowadays discussed IHS-classification we see contrarely to ours and to the demands of a good classification. Same counts for the classification that is put on by the ICD-9. First is to big, second is to small to be useful. Moreover, both show quite a number of clearly definable faults, which are opposite to clinical reality.

Headache is very frequent and it has many different causes. It is caused by a severe organic disease only in a small number of patients. In most cases a clinical examination, with special emphasis on the history, is sufficient for a correct evaluation. Only in selected cases additional investigations are needed. Headaches which necessitate an urgent examination are rather infrequent. In most cases the natural course may be observed for a certain period of time without the risk of missing important therapeutic measures.

Sudden, explosive headache is rather rare. Though dramatic for the patient and the physician, it does not necessarily herald an intracranial catastrophe. Benign and dangerous thunderclap headaches cannot be distinguished from the features of headache itself, but rather on the basis of the situation, the additional symptoms and the findings. This means that every sudden headache should be considered potentially dangerous and be investigated immediately. The dangerous forms comprise intermittent hydrocephalus, acute bacterial meningitis and above all vascular complications. Subarachnoid hemorrhage frequently must be ruled out by computed tomography and lumbar puncture. Intracerebral, especially cerebellar hemorrhage, as well as hypertensive crisis require immediate treatment. Fatal cerebral embolism complicating spontaneous dissection of craniocervical arteries (carotid or vertebral arteries) can be prevented by early anticoagulant therapy. To confirm diagnosis, additional investigations such as CT, lumbar puncture or cerebrovascular ultrasound, and in rare cases MRI, should be performed early as the available time for effective therapy in many situations is short. Many of the benign forms of sudden headache can be diagnosed with a focused interview (cold or drug induced and food dependent headaches, sinusitis, glaucoma). Others, such as neuralgia, cough and coital headache, can be diagnosed as benign only when additional investigations have ruled out symptomatic forms.

This study presents the history and clinical findings in 80 patients suffering from tension-type headache diagnosed according to the criteria (group 2) proposed in 1988 by the Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS). The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the extent to which the symptomatology in our cases still corresponds with the clinical picture of tension headache described in the older literature. A positive family history of headache was obtained in 59% of the patients; mothers of headache patients were affected five times more often than fathers; a history of migraine was reported as frequently as tension-type headache in the families of the investigated patients. The first manifestation of headaches arose almost exclusively in the first four decades of life, whereby two peaks (15-20 and 35-40 years) were observed in patients with the episodic form. Headache in younger patients showed no distinct diurnal pattern; headache in older patients, however, predominantly occurred immediately after awakening from sleep or in the morning. Changes of weather and psychosocial stress were the most frequent precipitating factors; additionally, the premenstrual period, occupational stress, and sleep deprivation were precipitating factors in female patients. Bilateral pain was most often located in the occipital/nuchal, in the frontal, and the periorbital regions. Headache was usually described as pressing/tightening in quality. Difficulties in concentration and the need of rest were the most important associated symptoms. Photophobia, phonophobia and autonomic symptoms were less frequent and are probably partially drug-related and may also be due to the fact that the selected group of patients suffered from severe forms of headache. 33 of our 80 patients belonged to the subgroup "with disorders of pericranial muscles" (IHS criteria: groups 2.1.1., 2.2.1). A remarkable low percentage of patients, especially of the male sufferers, reported regular smoking and/or drinking habits. Oral contraceptives influenced neither frequency nor intensity of headache attacks. Signs of depressive disorders were present in 28% of the female patients. The differences in symptomatology of tension-type headache between patients with episodic and chronic forms, between female and male patients, and also between younger and elderly patients are documented and have to be taken into account in the diagnostik evaluation of this condition.

Aims: Presentation of a new questionnaire for headache analysis that supplements a computer-aided scheme for the diagnosis of headaches., Major Points: The classification scheme of the International Headache Society (IHS) represents an instrument for the classification and identification of headaches that makes use of phenomenological criteria. On this basis, a computer program was developed that permits clearly differentiated analysis of various common types of headache. Both primary forms of headaches and clinically relevant secondary forms are taken into account. Since many--although not all--doctor's offices are equipped with personal computers, a questionnaire has now been developed with the aid of which the two major primary forms of headache, migraine and tension headache, can be distinguished. On average, the patient takes only five minutes to complete the questionnaire. Evaluation is performed simply, with the aid of an evaluation sheet. Types of headache other than those described cannot be excluded on the basis of the questionnaire.

Dysfunction in the upper region of the cervical vertebral column is largely to be regarded as the primary disorder from which secondary anatomical substrates, especially degenerative manifestations, develop. We must shift our attention from pathomorphology to function. There are two main types of disordered vertebral function which may lead to headache in many cases: 1. hypomobility (blocking) 2. hypermobility. Suggestions are made for selective methods of examination which help the detection of disturbed function. Cinematography can be used for substantiation. Diagnostic differentiation indicates possibilities for special manipulative, physical, surgical and orthopedic treatment.

Since about 20% of the patients in a headache clinic have ENT complaints an ENT specialist should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment. It is very important to know what structures in the head and neck are sensitive to pain for diagnostic and differential diagnostic purposes. Primary and secondary neuritis are headache mechanisms in otolaryngology and also tension headache, which is specially discussed. Rhinogenous contact headache and headache as cardinal symptom in various syndromes are also stressed as specific to ENT. Finally a scheme is given for investigating a headache patient from the otolaryngological point of view.