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An evaluation of production orders for medicated feedingstuffs for pigs given in 1998 in Schleswig-Holstein showed macrolides, lincomycin and tiamulin as frequently used antibiotical ingredients. The presented study analyses the production orders which include macrolides, lincomycin or tiamulin in more detail. There were large deviations to the rules of good clinical practise for the use of antibiotics (2000). The applied dosage was often lower than suggested in the literature.

The aim of this study was to determine the distribution of the progressive and non-progressive atrophic rhinitis of Upper Austrian swine herds. Further on the resistance pattern of the pathogens involved to chemotherapeutics was tested. In the period of May 1993 to June 1996 a total of 56 Upper Austrian swine herds were examined and on the occasion of the animal herd health management 997 nasal swab-samples of young pigs taken. The area of this investigation included 14 Upper Austrian districts and the herds examined were divided into 3 types. Type 1 were swine herds of the swine breeding association (SZV), type 2 piglet producing farms (FP) and type 3 closed swine herds (GB). Sucking- and weaning piglets aged from 4 to 10 weeks were selected for these examinations. On the average 10 nasal swab-samples (2 swabs per animal) per herd were taken, microbiologically examined and the toxin by means of ELISA-tests determined. In terms of resistance testing (antibiogram) 20 different chemotherapeutics, which consisted of 11 different groups of drugs, were used. As a result of 997 nasal swab-samples examined, 304 (30.5%) P. m., 111 (11.1%) tox. P. m. and 35 (3.5%) B. b. were isolated. 50% of the Upper Austrian swine herds showed PAR by means of microbiological examination and ELISA-tests as well. The resistance pattern of P. m. and B. b. exhibited significant differences. Penicillin and lincospectin were highly resistant concerning isolates of B. b., but were highly sensitive for P. m. Enrofloxacin turned out as the most effective drug to the P. m.-toxin-negative- and B. b.-strains tested, because no resistance was observed. Finally efficient PAR control programmes of swine herds belonging to the Upper Austrian swine herd health service are described.

After some introductory remarks on the pathogenetic mechanisms of acute undesirable reactions following the administration of antibiotics, the incidence of vascular shock (anaphylactic shock, anaphylactoid shock) is discussed. Investigations were performed to obtain information on the sensitizing capacity of erythromycin and clindamycin in rats and guinea pigs. Although maximation procedures were used, no sensitization could be obtained, in contrast to similar series with penicillin and sulfonamides. In another experimental series, the anaphylactoid properties of erythromycin and clindamycin were studied in vitro. The dye-kick-off test and the mast-cell-degranulation test were used. No pronounced anaphylactoid activity, either of the cellular or of the humoral type, was found in the two antibiotics investigated. The results of the animal experiments and the experiments in vitro are in good accordance with clinical experience: erythromycin and clindamycin rank among the safest antibiotics with regard to the elicitation of acute undesirable actions.

By means of a lincomycin containing selective medium, gram-negative, oxidase-positive, non-motile, non-saccharolytic, penicillin-sensitive rods have been isolated from 24 of 165 healthy adults (13,9%). Three strains were lost, 7 strains were Moraxella osloensis (4,2%), 12 strains were Neisseria elongata (7,3%) and 2 strains were considered to be a subspecies of N. elongata (1.2%). By agglutination and immunodiffusion could be demonstrated that N. elongata is a serologically heterogenous species. The nasopharynx seems to represent the natural habitat of M. osloensis and N. elongata.

A 10-year old girl (34.5 kg) being treated at our clinic for osteomyelitis erroneously received an overdose of lincomycin. On a single day she was given 2 infusions containing 6 g of lincomycin each, which corresponds to a dose of 343 mg/kg of body weight. There was an interval of 10 h between infusions. Apart from fatigue and unpleasant taste sensation, she demonstrated no signs of intoxication. None of the laboratory parameters (GOT, GPT, gamma-GT, LDH, G-LDH, LAP, alkaline phosphatase and CK; furthermore, the concentrations of glucose, BUN, creatinine, uric acid and bilirubin) offered any evidence of toxic organ damage. Osteomyelitis in children demands extremely high doses of antibiotics. In view of this fact, the therapeutic range of a substance is of utmost clinical interest.

Bacterial diseases of the central nervous system develop per continuitatem of haematogenically. Each of these two groups can further be subdivided. As an initial therapy when an unknown agent is present chloramphenicol in high doses (200 mg/kg KM) stood the test for adults and older children and ampicillin (200 to 400 mg/kg KM), respectively, for babies and infants. In case of need, this therapy is correlated according to the findings of the culture and the antibiogramme. In secondary meningitides the surgical cure of the focus should be performed only after improvement of the general condition. Recidivating meningitides undergo an operation when liquor fistulae are proved. In an unclarified cause a long-term therapy with oxacillin or lincomycin over 3-6 months is possible. In the meningitis of newborn the combination of ampicillin, carbenicillin or colistin with gentamycin is necessary, intravenously and intrathecally. Hydrocortisone and streptokinase shall prevent the transfer of the liquor spaces. Of great importance is the combat against the cerebral oedema. In mycetogenous meningitis amphotericin B, eventually in combination with 5-fluorocytosine, can be used. There are still no effective remedies against the amoebic meningo-encephalitis.

Addition of antibiotics to bone cement is used more and more in orthopedics and traumatology. Indications are discussed: 1. infection prophylaxis in replacement arthroplasty, 2. therapy and recidive prophylaxis in infected arthroplasty, 3. therapy of chronic osteomyelitis. Our own experiments show release of antibiotics from bone cement Palacos and penetration into cortical bone after experimental osteomyelitis. Carbenicillin and Cephalotin show high level of concentration for 2 weeks, after 3 weeks there is no concentration evident. Lincomycin and Gentamycin in the first days show high tissue levels, after decrease and increase again after second week. Gentamycin was examined during 10 months showing high levels after this time.

The pharmacokinetics of lincomycin (Albiotic) were studied in ten healthy male and female volunteers after administration of 1 X 3 g and 2 X 3 g lincomycin i.v., respectively, infused over 60 min. After discontinuing the infusion a mean serum value of lincomycin of 97.5 microgram/ml was measurable. 5 h later the mean serum values were 13.5 microgram/ml and 24 h later 1.6 microgram/ml. After 24 h 72.5% of the drug had been eliminated in the urine of 4 volunteers. The mean serum half-life was 286.3 min with the one-compartment model. The volume of distribution was 78.7 l with the one-compartment model and 25.9 l with the two-compartment model. The area under the curve has the value of 14 805.39 microgram . min . ml-1 and 44 418.9 microgram . min. ml-1 with the one- and two-compartment model, respectively. The mean values for the total renal clearance with the two models were 204.8 and 75.5 ml/min. The importance of high-dose therapy with lincomycin is discussed with respect to the tissue penetration of the substance and possible bactericidal effects, whereas lincomycin in general only acts bacteriostatic.

19 Following the inoculation of tissue culture cells with material obtained from 3 human eyes suffering from sympathetic ophthalmia (2 sympathizing = sy-l, 1 sympathized = sy-2), no growth of bacteria was observed. On the other hand, changes occurred such as are typical for a massive infection with mycoplasmas. The morphology of these microbes corresponds, down to the details, with micro-organisms which the author has frequently demonstrated and illustrated since 1948 in human, chicken and monkey eyes suffering from sympathetic ophthalmia. 2. With the cultures of mycoplasmas obtained from the eyes of human patients suffering from sympathetic ophthalmia, it was possible to produce the same symptoms in chickens as were described by the author in 1950 in sympathizing and sympathized human eyes, namely: torpid uveitis and papillitis, which dragged on for months, and affected not only the inoculated right eye, but also, after 3 weeks and more, the untouched left eye. 3. Identical phenomena involving both eyes have been observed in chickens, the right eyes of which were inoculated with a strain of mycoplasma hominis orale 1 cultivated from other material in the Institut für medizinische Mikrobiologie der Universität Mainz (Prof. Bredt) and given to the author. A chronic intraocular inflammation, which persisted for several months--up to 6 months and more--developed not only in the inoculated right eye of the animals, but also, after an interval of several weeks, in the untouched left eye. 4. Viewed critically and with due care, these findings suggest that mycoplasmas might well play a role in triggering off sympathetic ophthalmia. 5. The results reported on here indicate that intraocular inoculation with mycoplasmas is of importance both in microbiology and in general medicine.

Pseudomembranous colitis may arise as a severe complication of chemotherapy with antibiotics. Lincomycin and clindamycin are especially incriminated, but the condition has also been reported after treatment with other broad-spectrum antibiotics. The endoscopic findings are suggestive, though not specific. Overall mortality is estimated to be 10--20%. There is an increased risk in patients with a previous history and pseudomembranous colitis in relatives of these patients.

It is known that antibiotics which have an effect on 70 S ribosomes inhibit both the bacterial and the mitochondrial protein synthesis of plants and animals. This also applies to the plastid protein synthesis of plants. On this basis the present study has examined whether the inhibition of the mitochondrial protein synthesis caused by such antibiotics, may also be recognized by structural changes in the mitochondria. The effects on the ultrastructure of plastids have been investigated comparatively. The mixotroph flagellate Chlamydomonas reinhardii was used in our study. It was found that gentamycin (0.3 to 0.6 microgram/ml) and lincomycin (200 and 300 microgram/ml) cause structural anomalies in the mitochondria and in the plastids as well. Depending on the concentrations and the periods of exposure the mitochondria exhibited the following alterations: disorientation of the cristae within the organelles, reduction in the number of cristae and considerable differences of their length. In addition, vesicles and bodies which are surrounded by circular single or doubled membranes appeared in the mitochondria under the influence of gentamycin. We were able to detect mitochondria of unusual sizes and shapes in the cross sections. We also noticed changes in the arrangement of the thylakoids in the plastids under the influence of both gentamycin and lincomycin. In addition, electron-dense thylakoids, the so-called compact membranes, appeared under the influence of gentamycin. We suspect that mitochondrial alterations under the influence of such antibiotics could be one of the causes of side-effects, which frequently occur in medical use.

It is reported on the therapy with antibiotics of 5 patients with staphylococcal endocarditis with linkomycin--streptomycin. 2 patients were cured, 2 patients died after disappearing of fever and clinically unequivocally controlled septicaemia of typical complications of ulcerous endocarditis. One patient continued fevering to the exitus letalis when negative blood cultures were present, whereby at post-mortem examination an encephalomalacia with fresh haemorrhage was found to be the cause.

We investigated the antibacterial activity of clindamycin and lincomycin at 1/4 X minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), 1 X MIC and 4 X MIC against a serum-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and a serum-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis strain in broth, in serum with and without the presence of leukocytes and in Hank's medium in combination with leukocytes alone. Against both test strains, lincomycin in broth and serum was similarly effective, whereas against S. aureus clindamycin in broth was somewhat more active. In the combined test mixture of serum with leukocytes, even a 1/4 X MIC of clindamycin or lincomycin markedly improved leukocyte killing of S. aureus, whereas both compounds could not further enhance the marked leukocyte killing of S. epidermidis, even at inhibitory concentrations. In Hank's medium with leukocytes alone, clindamycin and lincomycin had at the most only a bacteriostatic effect against both test strains.

Due to the mainly infectious genesis drug-therapy with antibiotics is essential in chronic non-specific respiratory diseases. But they are only indicated when a bacterial infection is suspected. The broad spectrum antibiotics usually have a reliable efficacy. Bacteriological examination is no obligate supposition. But it is necessary if new drugs with limited effectiveness are intended to be given. In most cases of chronic bronchitis an intermittent application is sufficient. A continuous treatment is indicated only in a few cases. Some details of antibiotic therapy (kind of drugs, dosage, duration of treatment, side-effects etc.) are discussed. The possibility of antibiotic therapy in respiratory virus infections is inquired.

The toxic shock syndrome was observed in two young men (16 and 22 years). In one it occurred after a purulent scraping wound of the skin, in the other two days after an operation with seemingly normal wound conditions. All findings returned to normal in both patients after about five weeks. The syndrome of toxic shock can occur, regardless of age and sex, in Staphylococcus aureus infections of various kinds.

The Serratia infections are increasing in hospitalized patients, especially in those with reduced defences. This paper deals with a review of the recent literature on the microbiological characterization of the different Serratia species, the clinical syndrome associated with Serratia infections and the mode of transmission of this opportunistic pathogen. This author's experience in the occurrenceof Serratia in the hospital environment and their sensitivity to antibiotics and disinfectants is presented. The prevention of this infection stemps from these epidemiological data and, above all, consists in application of adequate hospital hygiene measures.

The effect of four frequently used antibiotics on the germs of the sinus maxillaris was studied. For this purpose germs of the sinus max. rinsing fluid, got from 127 patients, were cultured under nearly the same physical and chemical conditions which can be expected in the sinus itself. Each antibiotic substance was studied with three different comcentrations in the culture medium. By extrapolation of the linear regression between some characteristical parameters of the culture absorbancy development and the concentration, the inhibitory concentration can be estimated. The efficacy decreases in the following order: Doxycyclin greater than Gentamycin greater than Ampicillin greater than Lincomycin. An inhibitory concentration results, if the antibiotics are instilled in the sinus itself. The general side effects can be neglected but not at all the local ones. Investigations in this direction are still going on. As a preliminary report, 700 instillations of Lincomycin turned out with no incident.

For determination of tissue levels of different antibiotics in human tonsils penicillin G, ampicillin or lincomycin is given i.v. to patients before tonsillectomy. The concentration of the individual substances is determined in tonsils and serum by agar diffusion method. The results are compared by diagrams of tissue and serum levels and statistically assessed. For therapeutic evaluation the absolute tissue levels at tonsillectomy are compared to the values of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for most frequent germs in the stomato-maxillo-facial region. According to these results recommendations for antibiotic therapy of inflammatory processes of buccal cavity are given.

By applying in vitro and additional in vivo investigations of analysing coagulation in human beings with the routine methods TPZW, PTT and TZ it was possible to exclude influences of hemostasis described in literature and often uncritically generalised in papers and articles as well as assumed influences for such medicaments as acetylsalicylic acid, ascorbic acid, chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, gentamycin, haloperidol, lincomycin, methyldopa, sodium fluoride and penicillin G in therapeutic doses or concentrations in vitro respectively which correspond to therapeutic or toxic doses. For such solutions of infusion as infucoll 6% and gelafusal there exist these influences in the sense of an acceleration of coagulation in vitro. They can be regarded as shiftings within the normal range of methods which have no clinical relevance. Infucoll M 40 will to a concentration of 0.25 mmol/l of blood which corresponds to therapeutic conditions, to a shortening of Tz falling below the normal range of the method. These findings correlate with data in literature and could be identified even in lower concentrations by excluding the effect of dilution. According to literature these relations are identical with those in vivo some minutes after infusion.

Lincomycin has a good influence on mastitis caused by gram positive bacteria especially streptococci and staphylococci. Applied parenterally lincomycin is very toxic. Therefore it is not a regular therapeutic drug. The tubes for intramammary application are completely non-toxic. Lincomycin is very useful for treating dairy herds with galt mastitis.

Antibiograms of staphylococci were determined in a microtiter-system (fig. 1) within 4 h. The reactions could be clearly demonstrated by the use of tetrazolium salts. The procedure proved to be particularly useful for quantitative studies.

Regulations considering the inner-community-exchange of frozen bovine semen prescribe the use of lincomycin and spectinomycin (LINCOSPECTIN) and streptomycin-penicillin as antibiotics in the diluted semen. A susceptibility test with Tris-egg yolk-freezing medium, mostly used in Germany, demonstrated that lincospectin in a concentration of 450 micrograms/ml diluted semen had no detrimental spermatologic effect on sperm function.