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The aim of this article is to describe the mechanisms of the genesis and functioning of martial arts from the historical point of view, as a product of continuous exchange of knowledge, on both regional and international levels. The article responds to contemporary trends in the research of martial arts. It is not strictly focused on any geographical area or historical period; rather, it attempts to outline the general facts applicable to most combat systems of the world, by taking into account the similarities of various techniques. For this purpose, the focus of the author is mainly on modern Japanese martial arts. However, the article is also based on the traditions of European martial arts’ masters, which are well known to us, as well as on the worldwide historical development of martial arts.

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Should the South African courts abolish the traditional imminence standard, something must be used to stand in its place. The identification of the various alternatives which have been suggested to replace imminence - most notably the establishment of the "reasonable woman standard" as advanced in the case of S v Engelbrecht 2005 (92) SACR 41 (W) - has moved the law of self-defence into the realm of subjectivity. The end result not only undermines self-defence as a justification defence, but is also unworkable for a number of reasons. For instance, utilising expert testimony to explain how the battered woman’s syndrome affects individual perception would leave a judge with no meaningful way to determine if that abused woman’s belief in the imminence of danger was reasonable, even if viewed from her distorted perspective. It is suggested that no reference need be made to the "reasonable battered woman", since South African courts already do this to a limited extent by taking a number of factors into account in determining if the abused woman acted reasonably. By rethinking certain factors in the situation as a set of relatively innocuous normative propositions, the abused woman’s actions can be judged in accordance with standard propositions in the law of self-defence.

This article seeks to critically examine recent criminal law developments in Australia, England and Wales that specifically address the situation in which battered women find themselves. This article specifically focuses on the question of whether or not South Africa can learn something from these developments in order to make better provision for battered women who kill their abusers after having suffered through years of physical abuse. The question of whether or not a separate defence can be created for battered women in South Africa is also explored in this article. In order to answer this question, an investigation is launched into suggested defences in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

Criminality and feelings of insecurity are growing in the capital-city of Mozambique: Maputo. Statistical indicators on the subject, with which we have to be very cautious, are fostered by the discourses of part of the civil society as well as the public and private security actors. Urban violence is amplified by its emerging character in a sudden neo-liberal context and increasing social inequalities. However, criminality in this city cannot be understood without the historical national background. On the field, crime distribution proceeds along a target/refuge area division. Nevertheless, this colonial urban split has to be reconsidered. Local particularities have a higher and more complex spatial incidence on the phenomenon. The public authority lacks the capacity to curb this expanding criminality, especially as it suffers from a negative image. In response, the civil society adheres to varied alternative security devices, which are generally linked to the private sphere. What is interesting to note is that private security follows the social and economic urban groups. In the end, a kind of “territorializing” of urban reactions against criminality emerges today in Maputo.

Since the end of the Second World War the potential use of outer space for military purposes persisted to be intrinsically linked to the development of space technology and space flight. The launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, by the USSR in 1957 made Western states realise that a surprise attack from space was a real possibility, resulting in the so-called "space-race" between the USA and the USSR. During the Cold War space activities were intrinsically linked to the political objectives, priorities and national security concerns of the USA and the Soviet Union. After the Cold War the political relevance and benefits of space continued to be recognised by states. In view of the recent emergence of new major space powers such as China, the focus has again shifted to the military use of outer space and the potential that a state with advanced space technology may use it for military purposes in order to dominate other states. Article IV of the Outer Space Treaty prohibits the installation of nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction in outer space and determines that the moon and other celestial bodies shall be used for peaceful purposes only. Due to the dual-use character of many space assets, the distinction between military and non-military uses of outer space is becoming increasingly blurred. This article discusses a number of legal challenges presented by article IV of the Outer Space Treaty, relating specifically to the term peaceful, the distinction between the terms militarisation and weaponisation and the nature of a space weapon. It is concluded that article IV is in many respects outdated and that it cannot address the current legal issues relating to the military use of outer space. The legal vacuum in this area may have grave consequences not only for maintaining peace and security in outer space, but also on earth. Consequently, an international dialogue on the military uses of outer space should be facilitated under the auspices of the UNCOPUOS to address these uncertainties as a matter of urgency. Although it is agreed with the proponents of a hard law approach that a legally binding instrument should be adopted to regulate the military use of outer space, it is submitted that, as an interim measure, soft law guidelines should be developed to provide a framework for the eventual creation of a consolidated and binding legal instrument on all aspects relating to the use of outer space.