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Das kalendarische Alter ist eine wichtige Ordnungsgröße politischer Systeme im Allgemeinen und für den Rentenzugang im Speziellen. Gleichzeitig sagt es fast nichts über die relevanten Eigenschaften des Individuums, zum Beispiel Gesundheit, Leistungsfähigkeit oder Motivation, aus. Zudem sind Menschen für ihr kalendarisches Alter nicht verantwortlich. Aufgrund eines irrelevanten, unverantwortetem Kriterium werden also Rechte und Pflichten zugeteilt. Mit anderen Worten handelt es sich um eine willkürliche Zuteilung. Doch seine Schwächen erweisen sich als größter Vorteil. Denn das kalendarische Alter ist das einzige Kriterium, bei denen sich alle Menschen gleich schnell in die gleiche Richtung entwickeln. Niemand muss sich dafür schämen. Es ist transparent und theorie-neutral bestimmbar sowie weitestgehend fälschungssicher. Deswegen mag es zwar willkürlich sein, verteilt die Willkür aber gleichmäßig unter den Individuen. Damit führt es zu einer höheren Akzeptanz und Planbarkeit als alternative mögliche Rentenzugangswege wie Gesundheitsüberprüfungen oder Leistungstests, für die keine theorie-unabhängigen, allgemein akzeptierten Kriterien formulierbar sind und bei denen auch immer der Verdacht von Willkür im Raum steht. Deswegen ist die Nutzung des kalendarischen zulässig und häufig sogar geboten. Auf dem Weg zu dieser Analyse leitet die Dissertation zunächst umfänglich den Begriff der Gleichheit als philosophische Grundlage her, bevor sie die Philosophie des Alters im Speziellen diskutiert. Ein soziologischer Teil führt in die Lebensumstände des rentenrelevanten Alters ein und ein historisch-politischer in die Geschichte des Rentensystems und die Rolle von Altersgrenzen. Der abschließende Anwendungsteil wägt die Argumente für und gegen kalendarischer Anspruchs- und Ausscheidegrenzen aus Sicht der Individuen, des Staates, der Gesellschaft wie auch der Arbeitgeber ab.

This review presents the discussion on “Freedom and Arbitrariness. The Relevance of Kant’s Ethics and the Modern World”, which took place at the 16th Philosophical Workshop “I. Kant and the Current Problems of Modern Philosophy” held in Saratov on 14 May 2019. The discussion was organised by the Department of Ethics and Esthetics at the Philosophical Faculty of the N. G. Chernyshevsky Saratov State University and the Department of Ontology and Epistemology of the Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (Moscow). The discussion of Kant’s treatment of the problem of freedom was prompted by the historical and philosophical context of the perception of his ideas by German and Russian Neo-Kantians as reflected in the presentations and interventions during the course of the discussion.

With its complexity and frequent depiction of violence and sexuality, George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire book series is evidently aimed at an adult readership. Considering its setting in a feudalistic society, it is all the more surprising that many of the point of view characters are children or teenagers who are a priori in a position of powerlessness. This position is even exacerbated for the youngest children of House Stark once the game for the Iron Throne begins. Although they experience violence and have to face dangerous situations, the loss of their home and family is also reminiscent of the step out of the social order which marks the beginning of countless adventure stories and hero’s journeys in literary history. The article shows how Bran, Sansa and Arya Stark are initially subjected to the power and whims of others in a world marked by war, violence and arbitrariness, and how they eventually develop strategies to realise their inherent potential for empowerment in the course of their respective journeys.

At the basis of tireless efforts to explain the nature of law lies the question of how judges should decide cases. Therefrom arises a need for a theory that would clarify the role of the courts and, moreover, provide guidance to them on reaching judgments. The history of legal theory abounds with various attempts to offer a generally acceptable answer to the question raised. The fervor of debate and the perpetual dissatisfaction with offered solutions prompted the thought of untamable arbitrariness of judges. In the contemporary debate the significance of argumentation is particularly emphasized as a link of the court procedure which provides reasonableness and therewith justification and persuasiveness of the decision. Before going into the matter, I will indicate in broad strokes which areas of legal theory do argumentation and interpretation belong to. The purpose of setting a conceptual framework is to prevent losing sight of the whole as well as to limit the scope of discourse to a certain section of legal issues. The second part deals with the concept of argumentation in general and some specific features of the argumentation in law. The third part examines the role of legal interpretation and draws a clear distinction between the interpretation as a process and the interpretation as a result. At the end of the discussion I shall put forward a thesis that the interpretation as a process is argumentation, while the interpretation as a result is an argument in the justification of judgment. U temelju neumornih poduhvata da se objasni priroda prava počiva pitanje kako sudije treba da rešavaju slučajeve. Otuda proističe potreba za teorijom koja bi rasvetlila ulogu sudova i štaviše pružila im smernice prilikom donošenja presuda. Istorija pravne teorije obiluje raznovrsnim pokušajima da se na postavljeno pitanje ponudi opšteprihvatljiv odgovor. Vatrenost rasprave i stalnu nezadovoljnost ponuđenim rešenjima podsticala je misao o neukrotivoj proizvoljnosti sudija. U savremenoj debati se naročito ističe značaj argumentacije kao karike sudskog postupka koja obezbeđuje razumnost i time opravdanost i ubedljivost donete odluke. Pre ulaska u meritum stvari naznačiću u opštim crtama kojoj oblasti teorije prava pripadaju argumentacija i interpretacija. Smisao postavljanja misaonog okvira jeste da se predupredi gubljenje iz vida celine, a da se istovremeno ograniče dometi izlaganja na određeni deo pravne problematike. Drugi deo rada je posvećen pojmu argumentacije uopšte i specifičnostima argumentacije u pravu. U trećem delu se razmatra uloga pravne interpretacije i povlači jasna razlika između interpretacije kao procesa i interpretacije kao rezultata. U zaključku rasprave izneću tezu da je interpretacija kao proces argumentacija, dok je interpretacija kao rezultat argument prilikom obrazlaganja presude.

In his post-Tractatus work on natural language use, Wittgenstein defended the notion of what he dubbed the autonomy of grammar. According to this thought, grammar - or semantics, in a more recent idiom - is essentially autonomous from metaphysical considerations, and is not answerable to the nature of things. The argument has several related incarnations in Wittgenstein?s post-Tractatus writings, and has given rise to a number of important insights, both critical and constructive. In this paper I will argue for a potential connection between Wittgenstein?s autonomy argument and some more recent internalist arguments for the autonomy of semantics. My main motivation for establishing this connection comes from the fact that the later Wittgenstein?s comments on grammar and meaning stand in opposition to some of the core assumptions of semantic externalism.

Most idiomatic expressions are not simply matters of language, but products of our conceptual system. When analyzing idioms we should be fully aware of their meaning whether it is taken as a whole or an assembly of constituting parts. Their significance implies a general knowledge of the world which is embodied in our mentality. Therefore, language learners should go beyond the arbitrariness of idioms and focus on the motivational factor of their usage. This paper aims to analyze the functioning of idioms in two different languages and the translation difficulties arising from linguistic incongruities

This paper examines the novel Die Lehrlinge zu Sais by Novalis and aims to identify features of a language theory which is based on German Idealism. For Novalis, who has witnessed the establishment of modern linguistics and was himself a reputed researcher on philology, language reflects a potential relation betw een spirit and world. This suggestion is the opposite of today’s classic concept of the arbitrariness of signs. Considered by critics as unfinished, this novel contains a rich range of material which may serve as the basis of a symbolic-poetic language theory. The approach therefore looks at Die Lehrling zu Sais with a view to identifying features of a romantic philosophy or theory of language. A seguir, procuraremos identificar na obra Die Lehrlinge zu Saïs, de Novalis, um dos autores mais significativos do assim chamado Primeiro Romantismo Alemão, os pressupostos de uma teoria da linguagem que se sustenta no Idealismo Alemão. O problema se delineia à medida que, para Novalis, contemporâneo do estabelecimento das bases da lingüística moderna, e, ele próprio, estudioso de filologia, obser var-se-ia no fenômeno da linguagem uma possível relação entre espírito e mundo, o que, por sua vez, se opõe ao conceito hoje clássico da arbitrariedade do signo. Considerada pela crítica como um fragmento de romance, a narrativa de Novalis em questão apresenta um elenco bastante rico no que se refere aos pressupostos de uma possível teoria da linguagem de caráter simbólico-poético e messiânico. Assim sendo, a abordagem a Os Discípulos em Saïs terá como perspectiva a possível identificação, no texto literário, de características desta filosofia ou teoria romântica da linguagem.

A criminal responsibility for an act of arbitrariness can be incurred only after it is established that by such an act a person has made major damage to an aggrieved individual’s rights or lawful interests. But so far, the aforementioned element has been detailed neither by the penal law, nor by judicial practice. Therefore, the present article aims at analyzing the element of major damage to personal rights or lawful interests in the act of arbitrariness. The article consists of two parts. The first part analyzes the character of the major damage to personal rights or lawful interests by presenting the criteria, which particular damage to personal rights or lawful interests should be considered major; and the second part focuses on, whether the major damage to personal rights or lawful interests is a necessary element in qualified corpus delicti of arbitrariness. After making the research, the following conclusions are drawn: By an act of arbitrariness property, as well as non-property damage may be caused. Both, property and non-property damage can and must be expressed in monetary value, therefore the article suggests considering a major non-property or property damage such a damage, which exceeds 150 Basic Social Benefits (hereinafter – "BSBs") or LTL 19,500, and any damage caused not exceeding 150 BSBs may be acknowledged as major and incur criminal responsibility for acts of arbitrariness only in exceptional cases, when such acts of arbitrariness violate other important tangible and intangible benefits protected by the penal law, or when the damage is caused to an aggravated person by especially rough, intimidating or aggressive and humiliating offender’s act manifested in a few episodes.

In facing the challenge of suicide terrorism today on a global scale, it is tempting to attribute the phenomenon to cultural or religious behavior patterns observed solely in non‐Western countries. Yet recent scholarly research on its possible cultural or religious origins has led less to convincing and satisfactory results than to an unresolved aporia between arbitrariness and contingency. By the same token, little notice is taken of the fact that, in Western history and literature, actions and figures can be found whose development and strategies conspicuously resemble those of today’s suicide bombers. A series of such analogous examples in Western literature from antiquity to the present is explored in order to provide deeper insights into situational and systemic factors at work beyond cultural and religious determinants. To more effectively counter suicide terrorism, alternative policies are proposed with the vision of a peaceful coexistence of diverse cultures and religions.

Kann der Forschungsstand zur sowjetischen Besatzungspolitik in Ostdeutschland nach 1945 mittlerweile als gut gelten, so trifft dieser Befund für die Erforschung lokaler Ausprägungen sowjetischer Herrschaftspraxis und in diesem Kontext auch der Implementierung von Herrschaft durch Repression nur bedingt zu. Diesem Forschungsdesiderat wendet sich der Beitrag zu. Er untersucht die sowjetische Verfolgungspraxis in Köthen (Anhalt), einer Mittelstadt mit überwiegend mittelständischer Wirtschaftsstruktur und einem agrarisch geprägten Umfeld, die als typisch für den Großteil ostdeutscher Städte gelten kann. Der Autor argumentiert, dass die Repressionsmaßnahmen der sowjetischen Besatzungsmacht weit willkürlicher waren und breitere Bevölkerungsgruppen betrafen als bislang angenommen., While the state of research on Soviet occupation policy in East Germany after 1945 can now be regarded as good, this finding is only partly true for the study of local manifestations of Soviet rule and, in this context, the implementation of rule through repression. This article is dedicated to this research desideratum. It examines Soviet persecution practice in Köthen (Anhalt), a medium-sized town with a predominantly middle-class economic structure and an agrarian environment, which can be regarded as typical for most East German towns. The author argues that the repressive measures of the Soviet occupying power were far more arbitrary and affected broader sections of the population than previously assumed.