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Peripheral exudative hemorrhagic chorioretinopathy (PEHCR) is a rare degenerative chorioretinal disease with subretinal or subepithelial hemorrhage and exudation in the fundus periphery in older patients. Even though it is the second most common entity among pseudomelanomas and its characteristic features simplify diagnosis, PEHCR is often not recognized and therefore misdiagnosed. In most cases stabilization or regression spontaneously occur. Therefore, treatment for PEHCR should be cautiously selected when function is good and surgical intervention should be preferably considered when visual loss is imminent.Die periphere exsudative hämorrhagische Chorioretinopathie (PEHCR) ist eine seltene degenerative Netzhaut-Aderhaut-Erkrankung mit subretinaler oder subepithelialer Blutung und Exsudation in der Fundusperipherie bei älteren Patienten. Obwohl es sich hierbei um die zweithäufigste Entität unter den Pseudomelanomen handelt und ihre charakteristischen Merkmale die Diagnosestellung vereinfachen, wird sie häufig nicht erkannt und daher fehldiagnostiziert. In den meisten Fällen kommt es zu einer Stabilisierung oder spontanen Regression. Aus diesem Grund sollte die Therapie der PEHCR bei guter Funktion zurückhaltend und eine chirurgische Intervention bevorzugt bei drohendem Visusverlust in Betracht gezogen werden.

Subretinal hemorrhage involving the macula is a typical complication in a variety of retinal diseases, whereby age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is by far the leading cause.A literature search was carried out in PubMed.Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of various approaches to the management of submacular hemorrhage, including intravitreal anti-VEGF treatment, pneumatic displacement supported by fibrinolytic agents or surgical drainage.There is currently no consensus regarding evidence-based standard treatment for macular hemorrhage, although there is a trend towards minimally invasive approaches. Regardless of the choice of the primary treatment approach, the time to treatment and an accompanying intravitreal treatment with VEGF inhibitors are decisive for the functional outcome.HINTERGRUND: Subretinale Blutungen im Bereich der Makula sind eine typische Komplikation verschiedener retinaler Erkrankungen, wobei die exsudative altersbedingte Makuladegeneration (AMD) die bei Weitem häufigste Ursache darstellt.Es erfolgte eine Literaturrecherche über PubMed.Zahlreiche Studien zur Behandlung submakulärer Blutungen zeigen, dass eine erfolgreiche morphologische und funktionelle Behandlung mit unterschiedlichen Ansätzen wie der intravitrealen Gabe von VEGF(„vascular endothelial growth factor“)-Inhibitoren, der durch Fibrinolytika unterstützten pneumatischen Dislokation oder der chirurgischen Drainage möglich ist.Aus den vorliegenden Daten kann bis heute kein genereller evidenzbasierter Therapiestandard abgeleitet werden, wobei sich ein zunehmender Trend zur Anwendung minimal-invasiver Verfahren abzeichnet. Unabhängig von der Wahl des initialen Therapieverfahrens sind eine möglichst frühzeitige Intervention sowie eine begleitende intravitreale Behandlung mit VEGF-Inhibitoren für das funktionelle Ergebnis entscheidend.

Subhyaloidal premacular hemorrhage (SPH) causes a painless acute loss of vision with central scotoma. Typically, it can be caused by vascular retinal diseases or in the context of a Valsalva retinopathy. Ocular trauma is a less common cause of SPH.This case report describes a 54-year-old male who presented with a painless decrease of vision in the left eye after blunt frontal trauma to the forehead during a car accident.A car accident resulted in an abrupt deceleration of the head by hitting the windscreen. There was no direct trauma to the eyes. The initial visual acuity of the affected left eye was 0.1 and the visual acuity of the right eye was 1.0. Funduscopy verified an incomplete detachment of the posterior vitreous body with rupture of a retinal venous vessel of the temporal upper vascular arch and prominent SPH. Furthermore, a cystoid macular edema was detected. For internal drainage a neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) laser membranotomy of the posterior vitreous body was performed 1 day after the trauma. On the first postoperative day visual acuity increased to 0.32 with a complete resolution of the macular edema. During the follow-up, visual acuity was 1.0 after 3 months and 1.25 after 6 months.Acceleration and subsequent deceleration can result in a relevant transfer of force to the vitreoretinal interface as an indirect trauma. The Nd:YAG laser membranotomy is a minimally invasive treatment option for SPH after indirect ocular trauma.

PEHCR (peripheral exudative haemorrhagic chorioretinopathy) is a disease manifested clinically, particularly by subretinal bleeding, retinal exudates, retinal pigment epithelium detachments (RPE detachments), exudative retinal detachment and sub-RPE bleeding. The PEHCR lesion is often characterized by its polypoidal pattern, which is very similar to PCV (polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy) polyps. Diagnosis is best made with a wide-field ICGA (indocyanine green angiography). In approximately half of patients, macular changes in the form of drusen, up to exudative AMD (age-related macular degeneration), are detected in the affected eye or partner eye. Since there is very little literature directly available on PEHCR, this work also discusses the peripheral changes described in the context of AMD that were investigated with wide-field imaging.Die PEHCR (peripher exsudative hämorrhagische Chorioretinopathie) ist eine Erkrankung, die sich klinisch besonders durch subretinale Blutungen, retinale Exsudate, retinale Pigmentepithelabhebungen (RPE-Abhebungen), exsudative Ablatio und Sub-RPE-Blutungen manifestiert. Die PEHCR-Läsion ist oft durch ihr polypoidales Muster charakterisiert, welches den Polypen der PCV (polypoidale Choriovaskulopathie) sehr ähnelt. Die Diagnosestellung erfolgt am besten mit einer Weitwinkel-ICGA (ICGA: Indocyaningrünangiografie). Bei ca. der Hälfte der Patienten werden am betroffenen Auge oder am Partnerauge makuläre Veränderungen in Form von Drusen bis hin zur exsudativen AMD (altersabhängigen Makuladegeneration) detektiert. Da es direkt zur PEHCR nur sehr wenig Literatur gibt, werden in dieser Arbeit zudem die im Rahmen der AMD beschriebenen peripheren Veränderungen, die mit Weitwinkelbildgebung untersucht wurden, diskutiert.

Unilateral retinal hemorrhage in infants can be caused by vitamin K deficiency. The case described here with fatal outcome presents the medical history of a 2-month-old infant with vitamin K deficiency bleeding caused by the refusal of vitamin K prophylaxis by the parents. Ocular signs were unilateral intraretinal hemorrhage with Roth spots and preretinal hemorrhage over the complete back of the eye. The case demonstrates the importance of vitamin K prophylaxis for newborns.

Acute premacular bleeding is often associated with vasoproliferative retinal changes, vascular anomalies or a Valsalva maneuver. The diagnosis is made during the funduscopic examination and can if necessary be confirmed with optical coherence tomography (OCT). This article presents a case example with a sub-inner limiting membrane (ILM)/sub-hyaloidal bleeding. Furthermore, we present various treatment options and give an overview on the use of the Nd:YAG laser for laser membranotomy as a minimally invasive treatment option with a low complication profile.

Goodpasture syndrome (GS) is a rare organ-specific autoimmune disease that may consist of glomerulonephritis and pulmonary hemorrhage. Only few case reports have been published on ocular symptoms in the context of GS. This is a case report of a 22-year-old male with GS who was referred to our practice because of visual disturbances. The anamnesis revealed pulmonary hemorrhage, acute renal failure and nephrotic syndrome, which was treated by immunosuppressive therapy with additional plasmapheresis. Ophthalmoscopically, bilateral cotton wool spots were found along the vessels and bilateral retinal hemorrhages predominantly at the posterior pole. By intensifying the existing antihypertensive therapy the eyesight showed significant improvement. Although infrequently seen in Goodpasture syndrome it is important to be aware of ocular symptoms as they may be the initial signs of GS.

We report on a 30-year-old male patient presenting with acute bilateral loss of vision. Fundus examination showed bilateral retinal hemorrhages, cotton-wool spots, macular edema and optic disk hyperemia. The blood pressure was elevated. The patient was referred to the emergency department with the diagnosis of severe stage IV hypertensive retinopathy. Further examination revealed a previously unknown IgA glomerulonephritis with terminal renal failure and secondary blood pressure derailment. Hypertensive retinopathy can be a first sign of acute renal failure. In cases of hypertensive retinopathy the differential diagnosis including systematic screening is of utmost importance.

This report describes the case of a 10-month-old infant, who was delivered to our hospital by the emergency physician intubated and in an unclear unconscious state. The father reported that the child had fallen from the couch to the ground. The consulted ophthalmologist reported venous stasis in both eyes including intraretinal and preretinal bleeding in all four quadrants, a diffuse vitreous hemorrhage in the right eye and temporal retinal wrinkling in both eyes. Based on these particular clinical findings a shaken baby syndrome was suspected. This report demonstrates the importance of recognizing and correctly interpreting the typical ophthalmological signs of physical child abuse in order to detect and prevent further mistreatment of children; moreover, the increasing importance of photographic documentation and histological work-up of the findings for forensic reasons are emphasized.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the major reason for blindness affecting about 50 % of blind people in Germany. Early forms of AMD with drusen and pigment epithelium changes can be detected in 20 % of patients over 65 years old. The dry form of AMD causes slow deterioration of visual acuity, which cannot currently be adequately treated. In contrast development of a choroidal neovascularization (CNV) membrane results in rapid visual loss which will become permanent if treatment is not started immediately. Using anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents stabilization and improvement of visual acuity is possible. Special types of AMD, such as retinal angiomatous proliferation and polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy are much less common. The natural course of the diseases can be very different, end stages often result in scarring and anti-VEGF agents are only weakly effective.

Retinal haemorrhages are one of the three cardinal manifestations of the "shaken baby syndrome" or "non-accidental head injury" in childhood. The role of an ophthalmologist in suspected non-accidental head injury has not only medical but also legal aspects and has been discussed controversially in the literature. The differential diagnosis and the specificity of retinal haemorrhages in childhood for an abusive head trauma will be pointed out in this paper.

This review assesses the relevance of surgical approaches for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) with respect to the pathophysiology of AMD and the current pharmacological possibilities. We discuss the different surgical approaches such as subretinal membrane excision, cell transplantation (IPE and RPE) and transplantation of retina and choroid (PATCH), as well as translocation surgery. Peeling of epiretinal membranes in patients with drusen as well as vitrectomy before epiretinal brachytherapy (VIDEON system) are the final topics. While overall pharmacotherapy has displaced surgical approaches, surgery is worthy of consideration in selected cases. For these patients surgical options need to be maintained in the armamentarium of retinal surgeons.

A 31-year-old male patient developed uncontrolled elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP) under maximum tolerated therapy after severe blunt trauma to the right eye. For IOP control an Ahmed glaucoma valve implantation was necessary. On the first postoperative day the patient presented with retinal hemorrhages typical for decompression retinopathy. After a period of 6 months the hemorrhages had almost resolved and visual acuity was unaffected. The clinical picture of the case and possible mechanisms of this rare entity, which usually appears after incisional glaucoma surgery, are presented.

Exudative age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) is one of the conditions which has been shown to be associated with a risk of massive subretinal hemorrhage. Patients with thick submacular hemorrhage complicating ARMD typically have a poor visual prognosis. Antiplatelet therapy with aspirin, clopidogrel or ticlopidine has significant benefits in the secondary prevention of fatal and non-fatal coronary and cerebrovascular events. Anticoagulation is frequently used in this elderly age group for a variety of other comorbidities including prosthetic heart valves, atrial fibrillation, ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease and venous thromboembolism. However, it is a well established observation that the longer patients remain on anticoagulant therapy, the higher the cumulative risk of bleeding. Over the past years, there has been a rapidly growing body of literature concerning the risk of hemorrhagic ocular complications with ophthalmic surgery in patients receiving anticoagulant therapy. By contrast, there are still little data on the relationship between anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy and spontaneous ocular hemorrhages and only few reports have focused on patients with ARMD. Just recently, several authors reported a strong association of anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents with the development of large subretinal hemorrhages in ARMD patients. Moreover, arterial hypertension is a high risk factor for large subretinal hemorrhages in ARMD patients receiving anticoagulants or antiplatelet agents. Physicians should be aware of an increased risk of extensive subretinal hemorrhage in ARMD patients when deciding on the initiation and duration of anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy.

Subretinal massive hemorrhage due to exsudative age-related macular degeneration remains a challenging field for submacular surgery. While small hemorrhages can be easily displaced by various pneumatic techniques the correct strategy for massive subretinal bleeding is still under debate. This article reviews the different techniques for these severe cases and assesses the visual prognosis and potential complications. In general, invasive techniques for extraction of the neovascular membrane with or without macular translocation or retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) choroidal patch translocation have the potential to achieve visual improvement. However, the risk of severe visual loss due to subsequent complications has to be considered. Far better visual results with a significantly lower complication rate can be achieved by a 2-step strategy using rTPA-assisted dissolution of the hemorrhage and evacuation of the liquefied clot via a small retinotomy.

Subretinal hemorrhages are a complication of various diseases which arise from the choroidal or retinal circulation. Most commonly the underlying pathology is a choroidal neovascular membrane (CNV) especially in patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Less common ocular diseases are those with non-AMD-related CNV and retinal arterial macroaneurysms (RAM). Case studies have demonstrated a poor prognosis, however, a significant portion have favorable outcomes. Therefore, therapeutic decision-making is difficult. As a major difficulty in comparing different treatment modalities for submacular hemorrhages is the lack of a standardized definition of the extent of the hemorrhage. A classification for AMD-related subretinal hemorrhages including size, thickness and intraretinal location is suggested.

Exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the most frequent cause of acute submacular hemorrhage (SMH). Without treatment the formation of a macular scar with poor visual function is the usual outcome. While several surgical treatment approaches have been proposed to date, there is no general consensus regarding optimal treatment of acute SMH. Vitrectomy with subretinal co-application of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) and bevacizumab followed by a gas tamponade is a new approach which has shown promising functional results in clinical studies. The aim of the co-application of rtPA and bevacizumab is to simultaneously displace the submacular hemorrhage from the fovea and to effectively reduce choroidal new vessel activity. Experimental studies have shown that rtPA and bevacizumab are compatible in a co-application.

Since 1996 acute subretinal hemorrhages have been treated by intravitreal injections. Large proteins injected into the vitreous cavity can cross the retina as well as the underlying retinal pigment epithelium. After intravitreal injection of tissue plasminogen activator (TPA), plasminogen, which is part of a subretinal clot, is converted to plasmin in the presence of fibrin. Plasmin is a relatively unspecific protease that liquefies a formed fibrin clot. Simultaneous intravitreal injection causes an inferior displacement of the liquefied hemorrhage. Beside mechanical effects on subretinal clots plasmin inhibits choroidal neovascularization by hydrolysis of the extracellular matrix as well as growth factors. After successful displacement of a subretinal hemorrhage an additional anti-VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) therapy is required.

The purpose of this prospective observational study was to analyze the efficacy and safety of a minimally invasive approach in patients with subretinal hemorrhage secondary to exsudative age-related macular degeneration (ARMD).A total of 34 eyes from 33 patients with submacular hemorrhage due to exsudative ARMD were included in the study and 18 of the 33 patients were under anticoagulant medication. Combined subretinal injection of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rTPA) and bevacizumab with subsegment core vitrectomy and gas tamponade with 1.8-2.2 ml pure sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) was applied using a single pars plana incision. The follow up period was 1-17 months and median 4.5 months.This approach achieved a sufficient SF6 gas filling in all cases without the requirement of strict face-down positioning. Postoperatively all patients had subjective improvement of central visual field. Visual acuity increased in 16 out of 33 patients and 12 out of 33 patients remained unchanged. As complications seven tears of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and one recurrent subfoveal hemorrhage were observed, two cases of retinal detachment occurred and required buckling surgery. In 14 out of 33 patients further application of intravitreal anti-VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) was necessary.This minimally invasive approach seems to be a feasible and effective method to displace subretinal hemorrhages with tenable results.

This case study describes the clinical findings of two patients with spontaneous subhyaloid and sub-inner limiting membrane preretinal macular hemorrhage including ophthalmoscopy, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography (FAG), which are typical for a Valsalva retinopathy. The improvement of the decreased visual acuity was achieved in one case by spontaneous resorption and in the other case by pars plana vitrectomy. The etiology, diagnostic criteria and therapeutic options are discussed.

Glaucomatous optic atrophy is the result of both primary and secondary glaucomas leading to functional defects. Loss of axons and ganglion cells leads to a specific atrophy of the optic nerve head. Increased cup size and depth with loss of neuroretinal rim tissue are accompanied by changes of the retinal vessels and juxtapapillary retinal pigment epithelium. Changes of the retinal nerve fibre layer, caused by ganglion cell loss may be earliest signs of glaucomatous atrophy. The marked variability of optic disc size and form may influence the quality of ophthalmoscopic evaluation in extreme variants. Peripapillary haemorrhages and changes of pulsation properties of the retinal venules may give prognostic information for the course of the disease. These signs may be evaluated and even semiquantitatively measured with limited technical effort. They lay the basis for the evaluation of modern imaging and measuring techniques. This article summarises criteria described by Jonas and other authors in the light of modern imaging techniques and adds the latest scientific results.

A poor general condition of patients with hemorrhagic fever and elevated creatinine should raise suspicion of a systemic infection with Hantavirus. This can often also cause ocular changes. Above all, changes of intraocular pressure, in our case bilateral acute angle-closure glaucoma, due to edema and hemorrhage in the ciliary body result in anterolateral rotation of the iris-lens diaphragm with closure of the chamber angle. It can also cause a transient myopia, and intraretinal hemorrhages can also occur. Hantavirus infection is mostly transmitted through red-backed voles in Europe. The predominant type in Europe is the Puumala virus that can lead to an epidemic nephropathy with high fever, headache, gastrointestinal complaints, and an impaired renal function to the point of renal failure. No specific treatment is needed, but adequate symptomatic therapy is of utmost importance. When the infection has been overcome, complete recovery is possible. Measures for prophylaxis should be taken with respect to contact with mice and their excreta.

Vascularized pigment epithelial detachment (PE detachment) can be viewed as a special form of occult choroidal neovascularization (CNV) owing to the natural course of the disease, its specific pathogenesis and its response to various forms of treatment. This applies to serous PE detachment associated with both occult CNV and also with retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP). A tear in the retinal pigment epithelium (RIP) represents a serious complication of vascularized PE detachment and is often associated with acute vision deterioration that not uncommonly also involves massive subretinal hemorrhaging. The pathomechanism underlying the development of RIP has not yet been completely elucidated. The notion that the PED bursts as a result of the increased pressure stands in contrast to the theory that the CNV contracts and causes scarring which in turn causing secondary RIP. Anti-VEGF therapy is currently the preferred treatment. However, the initial stabilization of visual acuity after treatment could not be confirmed in long-term studies and after 2 years visual acuity deteriorated significantly. Furthermore, optimal VEGF treatment regimens have also not been defined and the criteria for repeated treatment have not been established as yet. Presently, visual deterioration and the presence of subretinal and intraretinal exudates seem to indicate that treatment will be effective. Here, high resolution OCT imaging should help to provide further insight into the matter.