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Current guidelines on the management of acute pulmonary embolism (PE) of the European Society of Cardiology recommend the administration of systemic thrombolysis in hemodynamically unstable patients (defined as high risk - class I, level of evidence A). However, in the real world, systemic thrombolysis remains underused in hemodynamically unstable PE patients. We systematically reviewed and analyzed all studies published from 2008 to 2022 that evaluated the optimal therapeutic window for systemic thrombolysis in high-risk PE patients, also reporting potential thrombolysis-related adverse events. We identified only two studies enrolling 532 patients (mean age 65.5 years, 251 male). These studies suggested that early administration of systemic thrombolysis was associated with reduced short-term mortality and lower rates of major bleeding events and subsequent clinical deterioration. The identification of a less wide therapeutic window for the administration of systemic thrombolysis may improve the short-term mortality of high-risk PE patients and reduce the incidence of thrombolysis-related adverse events encouraging the use of systemic fibrinolysis, where appropriate.

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Perfusion CT is a relatively new technique that allows rapid qualitative and quantitative evaluation of cerebral perfusion by generating maps of cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), and mean transit time (MTT). This technique can guide the decision to perform intra-arterial thrombolysis, intravenous thrombolysis, or other treatment. The CT perfusion data can positively identify patients with non-haemorrhagic stroke in the presence of a normal conventional CT, provide an indication as to prognosis and potentially select those patients for whom thrombolysis is appropriate. Perfusion CT can be readily incorporated into the conventional CT assessment of patients with stroke, adding less than 5 min to the imaging time, thus a complete imaging evaluation is achievable using widely available equipment whilst avoiding the need to move the patient to another imaging device. The Author with this paper underlines technical principles and clinical applications of perfusion CT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diagnosis of acute renal infarction is often delayed or failed due to the rarity of the disease and to its non-specific clinical presentation. Cigarette smoking, with its vasoconstrictive and prothrombo tic effects, is a known and sure risk factor for the development of the atheroembolic artery disease. CASE STUDY. This is the report of a case of acute renal infarction in a heavy-smoking patient, a 66-year-old man who arrived at our ward for right worsening backache with vomit and abdominal pain not reacting to the analgesic therapy. A urgent ultrasound showed excretory axes not dilated bilaterally. Therefore, we had to perform further diagnostic tests (CT and then angiography) which highlighted a case of a right massive renal infarction due to complete thrombo tic obstruction of the renal artery with patent contralateral ramification. We performed a PTA and then a local infusion of thrombolytic (metalyse 2 mg in 10'). After this treatment the patient showed an immediate stop of the hurting symptomatology, an improvement of the flow and an opacification of the parenchyma. (lower and medium part) with persistence of vision concerning endoluminal thrombosis. A CT angiography 20 days later, after home therapy with LMWH at therapeutic doses, confirmed a restored and normalized vascularization of the lower and medium part of the right kidney. CONCLUSIONS. In the light of these case results - good revascularization of the lower 2/3 of the right kidney, despite a prolonged time of ischemia from the beginning of the symptoms to the diagnosis and to the further thrombolytic therapy (about 14 hours) -, we assume that a wider use of the Doppler method can be of some usefulness, in case of recurring colics especially not reacting to analgesic therapy with negative ultrasonography check-up for the dilatation of the excretory routes, in order to considerably reduce the diagnosis time of renal diseases of vascular type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pulmonary embolism (PE) represents the third leading acute cardiovascular syndrome in the world and it is burdened with high mortality and morbidity rates. Percutaneous or catheter-based treatments of high- and intermediate-risk patients have garnered interest because of the limitations of both systemic thrombolysis and anticoagulation strategies. However, data on these techniques are heterogeneous and limited to small non-randomized evidences., Methods: This survey was jointly performed by the GISE Young Committee with the support of the SICI-GISE Society and ICOT group with the aim of evaluating the view of the cardiology community on interventional therapies for PE. A web-based questionnaire based on 19 questions was distributed to SICI-GISE and ICOT members., Results: The survey was distributed to 1550 physicians with 220 (14%) responses, 65% from North Italy. Multidisciplinary diagnostic and therapeutic pathways for patients with PE were not available in most centers (56%), and transcatheter treatment was available in 55% of centers, most of them at low volume (<5 percutaneous treatments/year). Among the devices used, mechanical thrombectomy was the predominant one (62%) in the absence of significant differences in the availability of devices within the three Italian geographic macro-areas. Respondents recognize the theoretical benefits of percutaneous treatment of PE, including: improving a prompt hemodynamic stabilization and respiratory exchange (89%) in high-risk patients, avoiding hemodynamic deterioration (39%) and right ventricular dysfunction (51%) in intermediate-risk patients, and reducing hemorrhagic complications related to systemic thrombolysis (36%). According to participants' judgement, the main factors limiting the use of percutaneous transcatheter treatment of PE in clinical practice are the lack of specific operator training (60%), lack of solid clinical data to support it (39%), difficult patient selection (34%), high costs (30%), and risk of procedural complications (26%)., Conclusions: Currently, transcatheter treatment of PE appears to be widely supported but poorly used in clinical practice. Solid evidences are needed regarding the safety and efficacy profile of the different available devices, the identification of patient selection criteria, alongside the enhancement of the availability of techniques and technologies.

Pulmonary embolism is the third most common cause of cardiovascular emergency. Risk stratification is crucial in the clinical and therapeutic management of these patients. The latest European guidelines introduced a new classification based on short-term mortality risk stratification, dividing patients into four categories (high, intermediate-high, intermediate-low and low risk). Despite the limited evidence in this field, the percutaneous treatment of pulmonary embolism represents an option of interest; however, correct patient selection and device choice should be better investigated. In this article, we present two case reports of patients with intermediate-high-risk and high-risk pulmonary embolism treated with the EkoSonic Endovascular System (EKOS Corp., Bothell, WA, USA) and the FlowTriever System (Inari Medical, Irvine, CA, USA), respectively.

Purpose: This study evaluated the short- and midterm patency of complete total occlusions of the superficial femoral artery (SFA) treated with direct stenting., Materials and Methods: Fifty-two consecutive patients (36 men and 16 women; mean age 73.6 years; range 58-85) with chronic complete SFA occlusion and good distal run-off (two or three patent vessels) underwent endovascular recanalisation by direct stenting. All patients were symptomatic (severe claudication or critical ischaemia). Recanalisation was achieved by using a contralateral approach in 44 patients and an ipsilateral antegrade access in eight patients. A total of 152 nitinol stents were used: three stents in 32 cases, four stents in eight cases and two stents in 12 cases. Follow-up consisted of clinical evaluation and colour Doppler ultrasound at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months., Results: The immediate technical success rate was 100%, with complete SFA recanalisation documented on postprocedural angiography. Four cases of distal embolism occurred, which were treated successfully with intra-arterial thrombolysis. During the follow-up, 12 reocclusions were observed: eight were treated with mechanical thrombectomy and in-stent angioplasty, and four were converted into femoropopliteal bypasses. The primary patency rates at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months were 92.3%, 76.9%, 69.2% and 69.2%, respectively. The secondary patency rates at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months were 100%, 100%, 92.3% and 92.3%., Conclusions: The percutaneous treatment of chronic complete SFA occlusions yielded good primary and secondary patency rates in the short and medium term, with few periprocedural complications. Reocclusions were treated using the percutaneous technique, which guarantees a good secondary patency rate.

The efficacy of reperfusion therapy, both pharmacological and mechanical, in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is time-dependent. The relation is closer the earlier we are from symptom onset and is valid for thrombolysis within 6h and for primary angioplasty till to at least the twelfth hour. Benefits of reperfusion bring to an advantage both in terms of myocardial salvage and left ventricular systolic function and in terms of quality of life and long-term survival. Although mortality and morbidity of STEMI patients have been greatly reduced in the last 20 years, the need for guideline revision and implementation remains urgent, mostly because mortality of real-world STEMI patients keeps to be always much higher compared to what reported in big randomized controlled trials. The most important indications from big trials and guidelines regarding both pharmacological and non-pharmacological reperfusion strategy in STEMI patients are discussed.

Intraventricular septal rupture (ISR) is one of the most dreadful complications during AMI, requiring early diagnosis and urgent surgery. However, medical (90%) and surgical (50%) mortality remain elevated. We report a case of a 59 years old patient with infero-posterior AMI complicated by ISR after thrombolysis. Despite early recognition of this complication by trans-thoracic echocardiography at bedside and prompt surgical intervention the patient died on the second post-surgical day.

Pulmonary embolism is high letal risk pathology often misdiagnosed, up to 70% cases, more frequent in hospitalized subjects, i. e. geriatric patients with chronic respiratory and circulatory diseases, or orthopaedic, neurosurgical, or neoplastic ones and trombophylic predisposing conditions. Medical pharmacological strategies include anticoagulative regimens (heparines, fibrinolitic drugs), either for prolonged therapeutical schedules or for prophylactic ones; within 30% of timely acquired diagnoses, compared to 70% non diagnosed cases, survival rates is directly related to the first approach, ranging from 60% after 7 days, to 48% survival during the first year, 39% and 34% after five and eight years respectively, considering the progressive relapsing risk. Radiological invasive devices such as caval filters or percutaneous trombolysis and reolysis are recommended for non responder subjects, in which medical programs failed. Time from diagnosis is infact the most important parameter conditioning therapeutic approach, that can rely on open surgery only in selected patients and in very specialized centers. The poor surgical prognosis is due infact to the cardiocirculatory emergency of patients that couldn't take advantage from any other therapeutical strategy.

Background: Treatment for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is based on early reperfusion therapy (coronary angioplasty or fibrinolysis). Such treatment requires the adoption of healthcare models that allow to perform angioplasty within 90 min of first medical contact, or when this is not the case and in absence of any contraindications, prehospital thrombolysis., Methods: This retrospective observational study was carried out in 119 STEMI patients undergoing prehospital thrombolysis from June 2003 to December 2006. The diagnosis of STEMI was made by trained physicians of the emergency system on the basis of clinical symptoms and 12-lead ECG with the support of telecardiology. Patient selection for fibrinolytic treatment was made in accordance with international guidelines on STEMI. Thrombolysis was considered effective in the presence of an ST-segment elevation resolution > 50% at 90 min following drug administration. Patients with unchanged or poorly modified ST-segment elevation (< 30%) at 60 min underwent rescue angioplasty for failure of thrombolysis. Coronary angiography was performed in all patients, including those in whom thrombolysis was effective. All patients were followed up for 1 year., Results: The diagnosis of STEMI on this setting did not prove difficult and the quality of tele-ECG was suitable. Total symptom-to-needle time was 78 min. Fifty-nine patients (49.6%) showed 50-100% ST-segment elevation resolution within 90 min of fibrinolytic administration. Failure of thrombolysis, symptom worsening and/or hemodynamic impairment were observed in 7 patients (5.8%) who were submitted to rescue angioplasty. Neither cardiogenic shock nor deaths or major bleeding complications developed in any patients. The survival rate was 94.1% at 1-year follow-up (112 patients)., Conclusions: This study confirms the feasibility, high effectiveness and low risk of prehospital thrombolysis provided that therapy is undertaken by trained staff according to prespecified protocols in the context of a well defined organized model.

Diabetes mellitus is a worldwide epidemic whose incidence and prevalence have significantly increased in recent decades. Diabetic patients have an increased mortality and morbidity related to ischemic heart disease and are more likely to develop multivessel coronary artery disease than non-diabetic patients. An acute coronary event is the leading cause of death among diabetics. These patients have an increased risk of complications after an acute coronary syndrome both during the acute phase and in the post-infarction period. Experimental evidences showed an increased prevalence of atherosclerosis as well as platelet and coagulation abnormalities in patients with diabetes, even after data adjustment for other risk factors. Both hyperglycemia and insulin resistance play a role in the pathogenic link between diabetes and atherosclerosis. Diabetic patients, therefore, could derive a greater benefit from therapies shown to be effective in treating and preventing ischemic heart disease. An aggressive correction of cardiovascular risk factors and accurate risk stratification of patients with diabetes are needed.

Background: Experimental clinical observations suggest that fibrinolysis (FL) in acute myocardial infarction, even though reducing global mortality, is associated with an increasing incidence of death in the first 24-48 h. The responsible mechanism is not yet known, although available evidence supports heart rupture as the possible cause., Methods: We studied 154 patients at autopsy who died of cardiac causes from January 1, 1994 to December 31, 2005 among a cohort of 2260 patients who were admitted for ST-elevation myocardial infarction. They were divided into three therapeutic groups-- FL, coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and conventional therapy (CT)--in order to assess the incidence of cardiac rupture and compare it with the other causes of cardiac death., Results: Of the 896 patients (39.7%) who were treated with FL, 57 (6.4%) died; of the 804 (35.6%) treated with PTCA, 40 (5.05%) died, and of the 560 (24.7%) treated with CT, 57 (10.2%) died (p < 0.05 in the two first groups vs CT). We studied at autopsy 154 patients (mortality 6.7%). The mean admission delay was 5.05 h in the FL group, 7.04 h in the PTCA group, and 7.05 h in the CT group. Cardiac death occurred on average after 13 h in the FL group, after 15 h in the PTCA group, and after 19 h in the CT group. The cause of death was due to cardiac rupture in 56 patients (36.5%), to shock in 55 patients (35.7%), to electromechanical dissociation in 29 patients (18.8%), and to cardiac failure in 14 patients (9%). In the FL and PTCA groups, cardiac rupture was the major, and also the earliest (10 e 12 h, respectively), cause of death, whereas in the CT group cardiac shock (13 h) was the major cause of death. Anterior myocardial infarction (n = 104, 65%) was more prevalent in deceased patients, whereas inferior myocardial infarction was found in the other 50 cases (35%). Cardiac rupture was more prevalent in anterior myocardial infarction. In the FL and PTCA groups, histological examination showed unusual hemorrhagic infiltration in the necrotic areas with presence of leukocytes., Conclusions: Our study shows that cardiac rupture is the major cause of death in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated with FL and PTCA, suggesting that mechanical and lythic reperfusion injury, in coagulative necrosis, may represent a further cause of cardiac rupture that occurs early or within the first hours.

Purpose: Massive pulmonary embolism is a severe clinical condition that requires prompt therapeutic intervention. We report our experience with a hybrid treatment involving systematic fragmentation of the embolus with an angiographic catheter associated with fibrinolytic therapy over the following days., Materials and Methods: From 1999-2005 we treated 164 patients with massive pulmonary embolism. We used the same angiographic catheter for mechanical fragmentation and for administration of the fibrinolytic agent (24-72 h). Results were assessed on the basis of changes in mean pulmonary artery pressure., Results: After fragmentation with the angiographic catheter, we observed four types of haemodynamic behaviour: in 61 patients (41.4%), mean pulmonary artery pressure fell rapidly below 30 mmHg; in 38 patients (23.1%), two passes were required to achieve the same result; in 32 patients (19.5%) three passes were required. In the remaining 26 patients (15.8%), at no time did the mean pulmonary artery pressure fall below 35 mmHg. The only two deaths occurred in this last group., Conclusions: Mechanical fragmentation with the angiographic catheter and administration of fibrinolytic agents effectively brought about a rapid improvement in patients' clinical status by moving the embolus towards the periphery.

A 55-year-old man was admitted to our department with a diagnosis of acute inferior myocardial infarction; 1 week later he underwent percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty on the proximal right coronary artery; during this procedure, the patient experienced chest pain and his electrocardiogram showed ST-segment elevation in the anterior leads; ventricular fibrillation also occurred. The ST-segment abnormality disappeared within 45 min, and no stenosis or spasm on the left coronary artery were detected during angiographic control; the blood flow in the right coronary artery was normal, but the acute marginal branch was occluded. This is a rare case of right ventricular ischemia caused by occlusion of the acute marginal branch during coronary angioplasty on the right coronary artery.

Background: It has been observed that in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) the presence of ST-segment depression (ST) in heterozonal electrocardiographic leads (remote STI) worsens the patient's prognosis. The aim of this study was to observe in an unselected population with a first STEMI the incidence of remote STI and the risk factors related to this condition., Methods: We evaluated retrospectively 350 patients with a first STEMI; we excluded from our analysis 139 patients because no data about their coronary anatomy was available. ST-segment depression in the heterozonal myocardium was considered significant if > 0.1 mV at 60 ms from the J point, in at least two electrocardiographic leads., Results: Patients were classified according to the presence (group 1, 117 patients) or absence (group II, 94 patients) of remote ST. The two groups did not differ for age, sex and coronary anatomy. In group I we found more heterozonal wall motion abnormalities than group II (32 vs. 18%, p = 0.018). In this group there was a higher incidence of smokers (56 vs. 33%, p = 0.025) and less patients were treated with statins when the STEMI occurred (6 vs. 14%, p = 0.047). Patients with remote ST had higher total cholesterol (214.6 +/- 48.9 vs. 192.3 +/- 29.8 mg/dl, p < 0.001) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (138.7 +/- 40.7 vs. 123.2 +/- 22.9 mg/dl, p < 0.0001) levels. Conclusions. In patients with STEMI the presence of remote ST is rather frequent, and seems to indicate a real heterozonal ischemia, independently of an epicardial coronary stenosis of the non-infarct-related artery. Remote ST. is associated with a higher incidence of risk factors related to microcirculatory dysfunction, such as cigarette smoking, a worse lipid profile and less protective factors, such as the use of statins prior to acute myocardial infarction.

We present an evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic pathway for the treatment of subjects with suspected acute elevated ST-segment myocardial infarction (STEMI). The pathway was developed to aid the reorganization of the emergency service (ES) of the Lazio Region of Italy. Pathway development followed several phases: a) setting up of a multidisciplinary panel comprising all professional figures involved in the management of STEMI subjects; b) drafting of a list of important research questions with a particular focus on areas of clinical and organization uncertainty; c) systematic searches for relevant international scientific evidence to answer research questions; d) assessment, synthesis and classification of identified evidence according to the quality of evidence; e) formulation of management recommendations by their strength according to the methods used by the national guidelines program; f) presentation of draft findings and recommendations; g) external peer review of the draft document; h) editing the final version of the document. Our document identifies possible action scenarios (community, emergency room, major accident and emergency departments) and the following critical points: 1) quick diagnosis and individual risk definition; 2) rapid transmission of the electrocardiogram and vital parameters to the ES control center or to the competent coronary care unit (CCU) depending on where the event took place; 3) a direct link between the ES control center and the competent CCU; 4) the structuring of the regional CCU into a Hub & Spoke model; 5) electronic communication of data between ambulance, ES control center and the competent CCU. Our document also defines Hub regional reference centers and local Spoke centers. The pathway details roles and responsibilities of all players in the emergency chain for STEMI sufferers and critical points for the delivery of the pathway: regional programs on early warning, functions of relevant ES personnel and of emergency room physicians, efficiency of the electronic network and identification and organization of the regional Hub & Spoke network.

Background: Recent international and national surveys on the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction have described a number of crucial issues regarding the prehospital phase, the criteria to address patients to primary angioplasty, the organization of interhospital transfers. GestIMA is a perspective survey organized by the Lombardy Sections of the Italian Cardiology Societies (ANMCO and SIC) aimed to investigate the management of the acute phase of myocardial infarction in the Lombardy Region., Methods: Between October 15 and November 14, 2003, consecutive patients hospitalized for ST-elevation myocardial infarction in the coronary care units of 60 hospitals in Lombardy were enrolled into the study., Results: Among 612 patients (median age 67 years, interquartile range 56-76 years, 68% males, 43% with acute anterior myocardial infarction), 43% reached the hospital using the 118 emergency medical service, in 20% an ECG was recorded before arrival (reported in 47%), 1.5% were treated with thrombolysis and 1.0% with glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors before hospital admission. Sixty-eight percent of patients underwent a reperfusion treatment: 43% with primary angioplasty (6% facilitated), 25% with thrombolysis (18% of them had rescue angioplasty). Primary angioplasty was mainly performed in younger patients and in those directly admitted to centers equipped with interventional facilities. During the acute phase of myocardial infarction, 10% of patients arrived to the coronary care units from 39 peripheral hospitals without coronary care unit; 21% of patients had a secondary transport between hospitals with coronary care unit (47% for primary angioplasty)., Conclusions: In the Lombardy Region, where a high rate of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction was treated with primary angioplasty in 2003, the 118 emergency medical service and the transmission of ECG by telephone are still underutilized. Moreover, the prehospital pharmacological treatment, the prehospital triage of patients to address to primary angioplasty and the organization of secondary transfer need to be improved.

Pharmacological or mechanical reperfusion is the cornerstone for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction and success depends on early treatment. Analysis of avoidable delays and the setting up of suitable organisation models are thus of fundamental importance. Primary angioplasty, provided it is carried out on the basis of the criteria recommended in the international guidelines, is more effective than fibrinolysis but is not practicable on a wide scale. The main purpose of the organisation into local networks is to be able to carry out primary angioplasty in the highest possible number of patients on the basis of real clinical indications and independently of geographical location or of the type of hospital structure available. A ''basic'' type of organisation model is presented and some operating schemes, differentiated according to the aid request procedure on the part of patients, are outlined.

Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors have been recently proposed as a bridge to rescue transluminal coronary angioplasty in ST elevation myocardial infarction patients in whom thrombolysis fails; but data in its feasibility, safety and efficacy are still limited. In 47 consecutive acute myocardial infarction patients in whom thrombolysis failed to achieve 90 minute reperfusion, tirofiban was given at full regimen. Our results have been compared with those obtained in a control group of 48 consecutive acute myocardial infarction patients admitted two years before, period in which tirofiban and rescue angioplasty were not available in our hospital. Our preliminary data suggest this approach is feasible and safe, with possible clinical benefit in this high-risk subgroup of patients.

Background: Recent data suggest that brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and troponin I (TnII) are useful markers of right ventricular dysfunction (RVD) and initial myocardial injury in acute pulmonary embolism. The aim of this study was to evaluate biohumoral activation and right ventricular function in patients with acute pulmonary embolism diagnosed at pulmonary scintigraphy., Methods: We observed 12 patients with massive pulmonary embolism (MPE), 8 with non-massive pulmonary embolism (NMPE) and RVD, 6 with NMPE without RVD. All the patients with MPE and 5 patients with NMPE-RVD received thrombolytic therapy (urokinase or recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator), the others were treated with heparin. At the beginning and after pharmacological treatment all the 26 patients underwent standard echocardiography and blood test analysis., Results: BNP and Tn1 were significantly high in MPE (BNP p < 0.001 and Tn1I p < 0.005 vs NMPE) and in NMPE-RVD (BNP p < 0.03 and Tnl p < 0.02 vs NMPE). MPE and NMPE-RVD had similar RVD (p = NS), thrombolysis significantly reduced BNP, TnI, systolic pulmonary pressure, both in MPE (p < 0.001) and in NMNPE-RVD (BNP and Tnl p < 0.05, systolic pulmonary pressure p < 0.001). COULSION: Our data sustain the utility of BNP and Tnl as markers of RVD in acute pulmonary embolism; they focus on patients with NMPE-RVD and high levels of BNP and Tnl in whom an aggressive therapy as the thrombolytic one is necessary; they suggest the importance of biohumoral markers as indicators of the efficacy of pharmacological treatment in patients with acute pulmonary embolism.

A case of subclavian-axillary vein thrombosis prompted us to review the recent literature on the subject. Paget-Shroetter disease is an uncommon disease, which is still associated with high early and late morbidity rates and the prevention of which requires early diagnosis and treatment. The importance of trauma (in the form of physical strain) in determining the symptoms of the disease is universally accepted. We observed subclavian-axillary vein thrombosis in a young 22-year-old athlete who complained of unexpected onset of pain in the left armpit, spreading to the arm and to the shoulder on the same side, functional impotence of the upper arm and swelling of the hand and forearm, and engorgement of the vessels in the arm, shoulder and clavipectoral region, which in the course of time developed the characteristics of a collateral circulation. The patient underwent phlebography which documented lack of opacification of the axillo-subclavian axis and showed the presence of a collateral circulation with dilation of the vein of the shoulder and arm. We first attempted to dissolve the thrombus by locoregional infusion of urochinase and later started anticoagulative therapy with an intravenous infusion of heparin (10,000 IU/h after a bolus of 500 units). Because of the poor result of thrombolysis and anticoagulative therapy and the progressive worsening of the disease, the patient underwent surgery to restore the continuity of the venous axis. The surgical procedure was performed through a skin incision along the upper edge of the collar-bone. This was dissected and the two stumps were well separated to allow a clear view of the subclavian vein. Phlebotomy, thrombectomy and reconstruction of the venous axis with an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene patch were performed. The postoperative course was uneventful and the patient underwent phlebography again on postoperative day 8, which demonstrated complete patency of the subclavian vein, and was discharged on postoperative day 20 on oral anticoagulative therapy.

Oncologic diseases frequently need a central venous catheterization to improve pharmacological administration safety and patient's comfort. We report a case of a woman affected by acute myelocytic leukemia with a bilateral stenosis of the innominate veins, likely of thrombotic nature, diagnosed during central venous catheterization. These events, as that occurred to our patient, are usually caused by hypercoagulability inducted by oncologic diseases, sepsis, antithrombin III deficiency, catheters materials and repeated catheterizations. Although the treatment, based on local thrombolysis, systemic heparinization, and surgery to repair venous obstruction, is effective, the prevention of such events is fundamental. It can be achieved with catheters of particular characteristics and appropriate management techniques. Finally it is underlined that in oncology patients, before catheterization, especially when the objective examination is negative, radiological methodologies and in particular ultrasonography are an important aid to establish the presence or absence of thrombosis in internal jugular, subclavian and innominate veins.

Background: Previous studies have indicated that the mortality after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is higher among women than among men. However, whether this difference is attributable to the older age of the women studied or to the presence of other unfavorable prognostic factors remains unclear., Methods: This retrospective study compares the clinical features, management and 30-day outcome in men and women from a consecutive, unselected series of 878 patients with AMI (225 women, 25.7%) who were admitted to the coronary care unit. The studied variables included demographic, history and risk factors, the ECG at the time of admission and treatment assignment. The analysis, both unadjusted as well as adjusted, was performed using multiple logistic regression., Results: The overall mortality rate during hospitalization was 24.4% for women and 13.2% for men (p < 0.0001). Women were, on average, significantly older than men (71.6 vs 62.3 years, p < 0.0001), had a higher prevalence of hypertension (58.2 vs 41.5%, p < 0.0001) and diabetes mellitus (33.7 vs 19.6%, p < 0.0001), were less frequently smokers (22.2 vs 52.3%, p < 0.0001) and waited longer resorting to the coronary care unit following the onset of symptoms (p < 0.005). Thrombolytic therapy was prescribed less often in women (19.1 vs 40.7%, p < 0.0001). Women had more mechanical complications than men (acute pulmonary edema, p < 0.0001; cardiogenic shock, p < 0.03). No significant difference was found between sexes regarding previous coronary events, the size and type of infarction, the ECG at the time of admission and arrhythmic or ischemic complications. After adjustment, female gender was not an independent predictor of mortality, following AMI. Mortality rates after AMI remained significantly higher for women than for men only among patients who had not received thrombolysis (odds ratio 1.90, 95% confidence interval 1.08-3.34, p < 0.03)., Conclusions: Much of the increased post-AMI mortality observed in women could be attributed to age, risk factors, comorbidity and other baseline characteristics. Female gender seems to be independently associated with a higher risk of death after AMI only among patients to whom thrombolytic therapy is not prescribed.

We describe the case of a middle-aged man with nonhemorrhagic stroke occurred during thrombolysis for acute myocardial infarction. The ischemic etiology of stroke was demonstrated by cerebral computed tomography scan. Transthoracic echocardiogram excluded left ventricular thrombosis. Transesophageal echocardiogram displayed complicated atheromas of the aortic arch. The reported case emphasizes that aortic atheromas may be the source of emboli during thrombolytic therapy.

The majority of patients with acute coronary syndromes are elderly subjects. They are at a high risk of events; in fact, they usually arrive to hospital late and this delay nullifies the advantages of reperfusion; they often present with a large and complicated acute myocardial infarction and the short-term mortality for such patients is 3-5 times higher than that observed for younger subjects. Although they are a high-risk population, paradoxically they receive thrombolytic therapy, beta-blocker drugs and acetyl salicylic acid less frequently than younger patients and they are rarely submitted to interventional procedures. In this overview, we analyze the reasons of this paradox and we suggest some management guidelines. The risk of bleeding associated with thrombolytic drugs is the main reason justifying the limited use of reperfusion therapy in elderly patients. The identification, in each patient, of the risk factors for bleeding permits stratification of such patients into different classes of risk. This may be of help to the physician in distinguishing those patients who are candidates for thrombolytic therapy from those who are not, reserving for the latter other therapeutic strategies such as primary coronary angioplasty. In elderly patients with unstable angina or myocardial infarction, a careful and early risk stratification should serve as a guide when establishing the indication for interventional procedures. The latter should be encouraged in those patients in whom the risk of bleeding is high and whose overall clinical picture does not contraindicate such a therapeutic strategy. In such cases, invasive therapy can really improve the patient's quality of life.

The discovery of the kinin system is not recent, but its study in clinical field has been done only in the last years. This system is composed by substrates (kininogens) and plasma and tissue kallikreins are the specific activators of these substrates producing two vasoactive peptides called bradykinin and kallidin. The biologic effects of kinins are mediated by specific receptors called B1 and B2. The activation of this system is particularly important in blood pressure regulation and in inflammatory reactions. The kinin system is involved in many clinical situations including respiratory allergic reactions, septic shock, hypertension and its treatment, hypotensive transfusion reactions, heart diseases, pancreatitis, hereditary and acquired angioedema, Alzheimer's disease and liver cirrhosis with ascites. The study of the kinin system in clinical field, which had been limited by methodological difficulties, has now received an important stimulus by the recent availability of specific and sensitive methods of dosage.

Massive pulmonary embolism associated with cardiac arrest has an extremely high mortality in spite of cardiopulmonary resuscitation maneuvers. An early diagnosis of pulmonary embolism as cause of cardiac arrest and a rapid specific therapy able to obtain a restoration of pulmonary flow can improve the prognosis. The authors report a case of cardiac arrest for massive pulmonary embolism promptly diagnosed by echocardiography and treated by thrombolytic therapy with an initial favourable outcome.

The success of acute myocardial infarction therapy depends on the ability to achieve prompt reperfusion of the occluded coronary artery and of the corresponding microcirculation. The significant failure rate of thrombolysis and primary angioplasty, often considered as mutually exclusive therapies, is due, in daily clinical practice, to both pathophysiological factors and to delay in the access to care. The introduction of new fibrinolytic and antithrombotic drugs and the differentiated use of primary angioplasty, pre-hospital thrombolysis and rescue angioplasty according to the different risk profile of the patient will probably lead to the optimization of current therapeutic regimens. However, logistic, technical and organizational problems commonly encountered in everyday practice could cause significant delays in the access to care and thus reduce benefits in spite of such a refined strategy. Therefore, the optimization of in- and out-of-hospital organizational aspects is also required if the benefits of therapeutic regimens for acute myocardial infarction are to be increased. Such a strategy should lead to the earlier administration of the optimal drug regimen and enable quicker assessment of the reperfusion status and more timely admission and/or transfer of high-risk patients directly to the catheterization laboratory. We propose a simple model of patient management in which different patient subgroups could be submitted to different treatment regimens according to their specific risk and to the modality of access to care. Such a model is based on the clinical stratification of risk, on telematic connection among care centers and on the facilitation of hospital admission. In Italy, the use of such a model could reduce the average time to reperfusion by 90-120 min and thus improve survival after acute myocardial infarction.