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This article focuses on the 1.5 generation immigrants in Spain, i.e. those who arrived at age 12 or earlier. Using data from the Spanish Labor Force Survey (LFS), we analyze the probability of being unemployed during the economic recession period. Results suggest that the 1.5 generation has a higher risk of being unemployed, although this risk decreases when accounting for sociodemographic characteristics. As time in the labor market increases, 1.5 generation immigrants manage to reverse their initial disadvantage with respect to the first generation, and close the gap with natives. Results indicate that, compared to first generation immigrants, the 1.5 generation group requires more time to find a job, although they compensate for this initial employment disadvantage by securing better positions. Thus, unlike the first generation immigrants, they have greater returns to years in the labor market, which also result in higher employment protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this article is to present new findings regarding the impact of the characteristics of the school environment on the gender gap in education. Based on data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the extent to which the existing gender gap in reading comprehension scores is conditioned by different school contexts and the level of gender equality in each country is assessed. Using multi-level analysis, we find that the social composition of the school and the behaviour of students has a significant impact on the gender gap, though in a differentiated manner. The gender gap in education increases when the school climate is worse, and it decreases when the concentration of parents with low education levels is low. In societies with higher levels of gender equality, girls see their scores in reading comprehension increase more than boys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]