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Currently, one of the most significant areas of literary studies is to assess, review and criticize of various rhetorical work from different viewpoints; such studies is more remarkable especially when performed on older literary texts with critical-thinking view.”Majmu'e-ye-Latayef-va-Safine-ye-Zarayef” poem ontology compiled by "Saife- Jam-e-Heravi", one of the most ancient rhetorical text from the late eight and early nine AH centuries, is written in the Indian subcontinent. The study of rhetorical subjects in ”Majmu'e-ye-Latayef ", considering its history, provides outlook on rhetoric’s history and development, especially in the Indian subcontinent; hence, this paper inspects this work from innovations, impressionability and imitation viewpoints as well as its importance from rhetoric perspective. The innovation of "Saif-e-Jam" in this poem ontology are as follows: personal terminology for rhetoric concepts, critique of his precedent poets’ poems, novel classifications, and new examples. Additionally, he gathered poems from both famous and less known Indian subcontinent poets, hence his ontology could be the only reference for several poets, especially the less knows or unknown ones. Such innovations has extolled the merits of his ontology beyond a merely imitation work. To specifically clarify imitations of ”Majmu'e-ye-Latayef ", this work is compared against other precedent predominantly rhetorical texts. This comparison reveals that “Saif-e-Jam-e-Heravi" have adopted various sections of his poem ontology from different references without mentioning their titles and authors; several of such references are as follows: Rashid-e-Vatvat's “Hadayegh-ul-Sehr” (divisions and examples), Jajarmi's “Munes-ul-Ahrar” and Kalati's “Munes-ul-Ahrar”(classification and poem samples), Amir Khosrow's “Eijaz-e-Khosrawi” and “Dibache-ye-Divan-e- Ghorrat-ul-Kamal”(definitions and examples created by Amir Khosrow), Khatib-e- Qazvini's “Al-Eizah-fi-Olum”(definitions), and Taftazani's “Al-Motawwal” (definitions). Furthermore, this work reviews and criticizes errors and mistakes of this ontology's rhetoric section in definitions, examples, and classification areas. "Saif-e- Jam-e-Heravi" have intended to collect an ontology and just exploit rhetoric viewpoint for classification of the gathered poems under separate sections; hence, he have mentioned incorrect examples for a given literary figure of speech or even have called one specific figure of speech under different names or labels (e.g., “tarh-e horuf” /lipogram and “hazf-e horuf”/ elision are identical). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, the valuable work of Fakhr Modabber, is the oldest known Persian text on war etiquette. Considering the age of this work and its inclusion of unknown military words and terms, many of which have Indian roots, it is an undeniable necessity to review this book in terms of terminology and semantics. By studying the book with a lexicographical approach, it became clear that many of these words have not been explained in any sources; therefore, in the present study, some newfound military words are extracted, introduced, and analyzed. The first step in our exploration is to study Adab al-Harb and to extract unrecorded words in the field of the mentioned issues. In the next step, by a library study method and searching in various related sources, pieces of evidence if any, were collected. In the final step, some words were analyzed and their identities were revealed, and some due to the obviousness of their meanings or the lack of sufficient information, which includes more than fifty words, were just introduced. In general, all these words are new and none of them have been recorded in a dictionary. The words are introduced here for the first time. Introduction Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, written in the 7th century AH, is one of the most important books related to the etiquette of war. This book has 34 chapters: “but the title of this book does not fit with all of its chapters, and almost half of it is in politics of governance and has no connection with war and war tools” (Afshari, 2018, p. 19). Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah may be considered the most specialized book in the Persian language on the militarism subject, whose author deals with specific military issues by mentioning numerous historical stories. Considering that this book was written in the Indian subcontinent, it is full of Indian words, most of which are related to the military field; “Mobarakshah’s prose is very fluent and masterful, and his language is full of oriental elements of Iranian dialects, and for this reason, the remaining manuscripts of it, have many scribal errors” (Safa, 1990, p. 1170). Of course, the identity and meaning of many of them remain unknown until now; therefore, the authors have introduced, reviewed, and analyzed some of these words in this study. Materials and Methods This study is basic research about the words of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah. In the first step, many unknown words were extracted by examining and comprehensively studying the text of the book. In the next step, by exploring the sources, it was ensured that these words were not registered. In the next step, evidence and data were collected by a library study and scanning of various Persian texts, and also, using different corpus-oriented software and text-oriented corpora. Based on these findings and with the approach of examining the use of the word in the text and the context of the speech and logical reasoning, the meaning of these words was deduced and analyzed. Research Findings Parvin It is a type of formation of the army against the enemy during war, and its name is derived from the constellation ‘Parvin’. JeggarAndaz One of the special military units, who had used a type of weapon called ‘Jeggar’. Jowaldooz/Nimjovaldooz ‘Jowaldooz’ is a projectile weapon that was used in special Castle wars. Chakh It was a type of thick skin that was used to cover the shield and make sheaths for swords and knives and the like. DahMarde It is the name of the weapon that was used to open the Castle. Bahram’s Tailpiece It is one of the three main methods of holding the Tailpiece of the Bow, which is attributed to Bahram Gur. Shooshak/Sooshak The word is a name of a kind of shield, which is made from soft and flexible tree horns. Caruri It refers to the name of a kind of Bow, which is attributed to ‘Karur’ (the name of a city near Sindh). Karveh It is the name of a tool that was used in special Castle wars. Gazeh According to the text of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, it can be said that ‘Gazeh’ is the point of connection and locking of the arrow with the arrowhead. MardGir It was a spear with a crooked head that was used to grab and pull fighters down from the castle. Semilunar It is a type of formation of the army against the enemy during war, which is specific to Iranians and its name is derived from the shape of the new moon. Unexplained Weapons A number of words are mentioned in two groups for introduction and registration in dictionaries: a group of words whose meanings are clear from their appearance and name, and another group of words that, unfortunately, despite extensive searching in various sources, no information was found about them. Conclusion It can be said that most of the military words and terms of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah are related to the Indian subcontinent, which, although used in some Persian texts, have remained obsolete and abandoned today. The author is very creative in using these words. Moreover, despite the valuable efforts of Soheili Khansari, the proofreader of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, the publication of this book has many errors and its re-correction is clearly necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Devalrani and Khizrkhan Masnavi by Amir Khosrow Dihlavi, composed in 715 (Hijri lunar), not only contains awakening points about history and the community and context of India in the seventh and early eighth century (Hijri lunar), but also includes valuable information about the uses of the Persian language and its lexicon in that particular period and area. Amir Khosrow Dihlavi (651-725 Hijri lunar) is the most well-known and outstanding Persian poet in the Indian subcontinent who has left numerous and various works as heritage. One of the significant features of his poems is the use of rare and new word-formation. If we take a random look at the entries of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, below some of the entries, there are some pieces of evidence of the poems of Amir Khosrow as well as the writers and orators before him. We can even find entries with exclusive evidence from Amir Khosrow’s poems. Additionally, some traces of his morphological innovations have been found in the works of poets and writers after him. Like Hafiz and Mohtasham Kashani, who have used ‘aeeneh ru’ and ‘vahdat abad’ in their sonnets, respectively, Bidel Dehlavi has also used ‘niaz andish’. Jami has used the word ‘belasanj’ and Orfi Sharazi and Qudsi Mashhadi have used ‘ragham sanji’ and ‘faramush gashtegan’ in their sonnets. These all have already been used by Amir Khosrow in Devalrani and Khizrkhan (the first three words), qeran sa’deyn (the fourth mentioned word), ayine-ye eskandari (the fifth word) and in a sonnet from qurat-ul-kamal (the sixth). Nevertheless, so far there have been few lexical analyses of the works of Amir Khosrow Dihlavi though, in some literary research, the works of Amir Khosrow have been occasionally examined to some extent. Among these studies is the one entitled ‘An examination of some influential Indian words in the Persian poetry’ by Rezayi Baghbidi. In this study, Baghbidi made an etymological analysis of some words found in Persian texts and provided examples for each word from the well-known Persian poets. Among these examples are some verses from Amir Khosrow. In contrast to the study by him, Salim Neysari made a comprehensive analysis of the lexical innovations in Amir Khosrow’s poems in an article entitled ‘Innovations of Amir Khosrow Dihlavi in combining Persian words’. He set ‘Noh Sepehr’ (nine heavens) Masnavi as the basis of his work and the result of his work was a list of the compounds and words used in this Masnavi for which there is either no entry in Dehkhoda Dictionary (28 cases) or there is an entry but no examples (nine cases) or there are both an entry and examples from the works of Amir Khosrow (two cases). The present study is an attempt to select and introduce rare and new words from Devalrani and Khizrkhan and its innovative word combinations and to examine Amir Khosrow’s word-combination way to show that this well-known Persian poet in the Indian subcontinent has been successful in creating new compounds. In addition, considering the fact that some of the existing word combinations in this poem have no entries and examples in the most important Persian dictionary, i.e. Dehkhoda Dictionary, the present study also seeks to introduce these new words and word combinations to be used in this dictionary and in the future lexical analysis studies. It should be noted that Devalrani and Khizrkhan is one of the romantic-historical masnavis of Amir Khosrow. The subject of this masnavi is about the love that KhizrKhan, the son of Sultan Ala’eddin Muhammad Khalaji, had for Diveldi, daughter of Raay Karan (ruler of Gujarat). Amir Khosrow composed this romantic poem in 4519 verses in the prosodic weight of Musadas-e Mahzoof/Maqsoor in 715 (Hijri lunar). In this study, first the whole poem was studied and 240 words and compounds that qualified as new and novel were selected. Then, reviewing different poetry and prose books by poets and authors who lived before the age of Amir Khosrow, 125 words and word combinations, which had been already used in these texts were put aside. For this purpose, in addition to searching the digital version of the Dehkhoda Dictionary and digital library of Noor and Noormags database, and the Ganjoor website, various textbooks in print were also searched including Tafsir-e Nasafi, Koush-nameh, Monsha’at-e Khaqani, Ali-nameh, Loqat-e Fors, Sha’eran-e Bi-divan, Mersad ol-Ebad, Nafthat ol-Masdoor, Faramarz-nameh, Tarikh ol-Vozara, Sandbadnameh, Divan-e Najib od-Din Jorbazeqani, etc… . The results of analysis revealed a final number of 115 words and compounds not used in the works before Devalrani. These words were classified into different groups as follows: Group A: words or compounds for which there is no entry in Dehkhoda dictionary or there is an entry but the meaning intended by Amir Khosrow cannot be found in Dehkhoda dictionary (85 cases); Group B: words and compounds with entries in the Dehkhoda Dictionary but no examples (19 cases); Group C: words and compounds with entries in the dictionary and examples from Devalrani and Khizrkhan (four cases); Group D: words and compounds for which there are examples from the poets after Amir Khosrow (five cases); and finally Group E: words the meanings of which have been provided in the Dehkhoda Dictionary but with examples from the verses of other works of Amir Khosrow (two cases). The results show that Devalrani and Khizrkhan contains a number of unique and novel words and word combinations that not only reveal the poet’s skill and talent in producing new words but also reflect the lexical environment of the Persian language in India at the end of the seventh and early eighth century (Hijri lunar). Furthermore, a part of the lexical benefits of these sets of words includes the unique names and proper nouns used in this text. Out of these names, 11 names are Indian proper names used to refer to ethnicities and groups, social titles, carriers and riding animals, musical instruments, flowers and plants, one of the gods of the ancient India, and also materials and clothes. Besides these Indian proper names, there are a number of Persian names and proper names related to the living environment in India in this poem. These names also refer to ethnic groups, a type of riding animal, one of the coins being used at that time, a type of material, two types of flower and plant, and one of the partners. Additionally, an alternative word is used for riddle and spy news. In addition to these words, this romantic-historical masnavi has preserved some unique word combinations within it; words combinations that the poet has created using 31 non-repetitive (unique) methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence and expansion of Islam religion in the Indian Subcontinent are the important issues which have been considered by scholars for a long time ago. Various factors have contributed to the spread and influence of Islam in the Indian Subcontinent including the arrival of early invaders, Muslim merchants and traders, and the migration of Muslim clerics and Sufis. Meanwhile, the share of Sufis has been higher and more considerable than in other groups. Some Western and Indian scholars believe that Islam first entered the region through military conquests. But, historical evidence did not support this claim. Although in a general process, military movements should be considered as obstacles to the influence and spread of Islam, but in some periods and some areas of migration, military campaigns provided a good platform for groups of Arab tribes or individuals and groups of merchants, Sufis, scholars, and scientists to enter the area. Some Sufis even went to India with the same troops. With proper and humane behavior and interaction with the inhabitants of the Indian Subcontinent and the Indian religions, Sufis were able to partially eliminate the hatred and pessimism of the Indian invaders about the actions of the Muslim invaders in the early periods of the spread of Islam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]