Search

Introduction: Egg is one of the most valuable food items in the human diet. Several factors, such as diseases, bird age, diet, temperature, humidity, transportation, and storage time can affect the quality of eggs. The longer the storage time, the more CO2 penetrates the eggshell, particularly at room temperature, resulting in decreased internal quality. Eggs are a perishable product and must be stored in the refrigerator from production to consumption. Refrigeration increases production costs and ultimately leads to an increase in the final product price. Currently, there is a growing interest in developing effective methods to preserve the internal quality of eggs. The use of edible coatings after washing the eggs can help preserve the internal quality of the eggs during long-term storage. Edible coatings are an available technology that is currently used to control moisture, gas exchange, and oxidation processes for many products. The use of suitable active and antimicrobial edible films and coatings can potentially reduce the microbial load of egg surfaces, reduce undesirable changes, and increase their shelf life. Proteins are commonly used as film-forming materials. Proteins that have been previously investigated for egg coating development include whey protein isolate or concentrate, zein, and rice protein concentrate. Chicken feathers are a by-product of the poultry industry and are mostly disposed of without any processing, causing severe environmental pollution. To date, hydrolyzed feather protein has not been reported as an egg coating, so this study investigated the effect of hydrolyzed feather protein coating at two concentrations on the shelf life of chicken eggs under room temperature storage conditions. Materials and methods: In this study, a total of 120 fresh white-shelled eggs were obtained from Hy-Line W36 laying hens. The eggshells were washed to remove any surface contamination, then the eggs were numbered and randomly selected for each coating method. The samples were divided into three treatments of 40 eggs each treatment in a completely randomized design. The treatments included control (0%, without coating), a coating containing 10% (w/v) hydrolyzed feather, and a coating containing 20% hydrolyzed feather. Pure glycerol (Serva, Germany) was added to hydrolyzed feathers (2% w/v). The feather hydrolyzed protein was prepared at Tarbiat Modares University using alkaline hydrolyzed raw chicken feathers obtained from a commercial broiler slaughterhouse (Iran Borchin, Tehran). The chemical analysis of hydrolyzed feather protein was performed based on standard methods (dry matter, protein, ash, and fat), and the amino acid profile of the protein was also tested. Some nutritional or toxic important minerals were also measured. Egg weight, Haugh units, albumen weight, yolk weight, yolk color, albumen pH, yolk pH, and shell strength were measured during storage weeks 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Results and discussion: According to the data of this study, the height of the egg white and Haugh units in the stored eggs were significantly affected by the experimental coatings (P<0.05). The height of the egg white and Haugh units were significantly higher in the treatment with 20% hydrolyzed protein coating compared to other treatments (P<0.05). The yellowness of the egg yolk was significantly affected by the experimental coatings in the third week (P<0.05). The highest egg quality score was observed in the first and third weeks in eggs with 20% hydrolyzed feather protein coating (P<0.05). The eggshell characteristics were not affected by the experimental coatings. The egg white and yolk percentages were not affected by the experimental coatings. The pH of the egg white in the first and third weeks decreased significantly in eggs with 20% hydrolyzed feather protein coating compared to other treatments (P<0.05). The pH of the yolk was not affected by the experimental treatments. The pH in both the yolk and egg white increased over time. Eggs with coating had significantly less weight loss compared to uncoated eggs (P<0.05). The lowest weight loss was related to eggs with 10% and 20% hydrolyzed feather protein coating, which had a significant difference with uncoated eggs (P<0.05). The weight loss after seven days of storage in uncoated eggs (2.12%) was almost double the weight loss in coated eggs (1.16%). The weight loss after 14 days of storage at room temperature in uncoated eggs (4.21%) was almost double the weight loss in coated eggs (2.35%). The weight loss after 21 days of storage at room temperature in uncoated eggs (6.8%) was almost double the weight loss in coated eggs (3.35%). The weight loss after 28 days of storage at room temperature in uncoated eggs (8.27%) was almost double the weight loss in coated eggs (4.80%). Based on the results of this study, it was found that the use of hydrolyzed feather protein coating can improve the internal quality of eggs during the storage period. For future research, it is recommended to conduct further studies on the effect of hydrolyzed feather protein coating on the quality characteristics of eggs during storage. Previous studies have been conducted on improving the internal quality of eggs during storage using protein coatings with different hydrolysis. Some of these studies have shown that protein coating with hydrolysis can significantly improve the quality characteristics of eggs. Additionally, some studies have been conducted on the effect of protein coating using different proteins such as rice protein, meat protein, whey protein isolated, or whey protein concentrate and zein. Conclusions: There was no significant difference in weight loss between 10% and 20% hydrolyzed feather protein coverage in different weeks, but the 10% hydrolyzed feather protein coverage provided better protection against weight loss. Since weight loss is mainly due to eggshell water evaporation, it was observed that despite being thinner, the 10% hydrolyzed feather protein coverage provided better protection compared to the 20% hydrolyzed feather protein coverage. Therefore, the use of coverages during egg storage can increase shelf life while maintaining egg quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction:Sustainable use, development and conservation of poultry genetic resources are of particular importance for agriculture, food production, rural development and the environment (Besbes et al. 2007). Indigenous chickens are often considered as a support for low input backyard or free-range system of production in rural, semi-urban and nomadic areas (Haunshi et al. 2019). Native chickens have unique characteristics such as ability to adapt to adverse environments, hardiness, broodiness and aggressiveness to protect their chicks, and more. However, low genetic potential is one of the identified limitations for increasing the productivity of native chickens along with inadequate nutrition and disease prevalence (Magothe et al. 2012a). The inbreeding accumulation and the decline in genetic diversity that occurs due to the mating of related animals in closed populations negatively affect phenotypic values and additive genetic variance (Falconer and Mackay 1996). Inbreeding, which occurs because of mating of related animals in a population, often occurs in the closed and small populations. The negative consequence of inbreeding is referred to as inbreeding depression, which has become a major concern in research related to evolution, ecology, and conservation biology (Reed et al. 2012). In small populations in particular, the inbreeding depression is significant in reproduction issues and has important consequences for the population's ability to evolve and adapt to environmental changes and ultimately their longevity (Leroy 2014). Increasing the inbreeding rate in closed populations of indigenous chickens' farms may negatively affect the increase in population productivity following the selection process and have destructive effects on improving economic traits in the population. Therefore, considering the importance of the issue, it seems necessary to monitor the inbreeding rate as well as the resulting depression in the under selection closed population of breeding station of Khorasan Razavi indigenous fowl. Materials and methods:In order to estimate the inbreeding rate and evaluate its effects on some important economic traits the pedigree data of 38489 birds collected during 2006-2017 in breeding station of Khorasan Razavi indigenous fowl were used. First, the pedigree data of the studied traits were edited using Foxpro and Excell software and then the files required for data analysis were prepared. The eight traits including average egg weight (AEW), egg number (EN), egg weight at 1st day of laying (EW1), age at sexual maturity (ASM), weight at sexual maturity (WSM), body weight at 12 weeks of age (BW12), body weight at hatch (BW1) and body weight at 8 weeks of age (BW8) were studied. The inbreeding coefficients of all birds recorded in the pedigree were estimated using the CFC program (Sergolzai et al. 2006). The inbreeding coefficients of the birds were divided into different categories. Then, the mean changes of inbreeding during different generations were evaluated and the amount of inbreeding changes in each year was calculated using SPSS software by fitting linear regression of inbreeding per generation. Also in this study, regression coefficients of studied traits on individual and maternal inbreeding percentage were estimated with the REML procedure of WOMBAT software (Meyer 2007) through different models. Results and discussion: The results showed that about 57% (21892 birds) of all birds registered in the pedigree were inbred. The mean of individual and maternal inbreeding varied relatively little over 12 generations. The mean inbreeding of all birds and inbred birds was estimated to be two and three percent, respectively. The highest and lowest inbreeding rates were three and 0%, respectively. As the results show, despite the closed raising and selection of the population and also the increase in the probability of inbreeding in the population, the inbreeding rate has been increased with a relatively low slope over the generations. In general, during the studied generations, the average coefficient of individual and maternal inbreeding in the whole population showed an increasing trend, so that by fitting the linear regression of inbreeding to the generation, the rate of changes in individual and maternal inbreeding was estimated to be about 0.005± 0.03 and 0.004± 0.02 per generation, respectively. In a study conducted on the Isfahan improved native chicken population (Jelokhani-Niaraki et al. 1400), researchers estimated the rate of individual and maternal inbreeding changes per year for the all population by fitting linear regression of inbreeding per generation to 0.006± 0.05 and 0.005± 0.04, respectively, which is approximately consistent with the results of the present study. In this study, 43.12% of the birds were non-inbred and the rest of the birds (47.68%) were grouped in six different inbred groups. The results showed that among the inbred groups, the most inbred birds (47.68%) were birds with inbreeding coefficients between 0 and 5%, which indicates that the population inbreeding is relatively low. Various studies have been performed on the inbreeding rate of domestic chickens in the country; the results are consistent with the results of the present study. For example, the results of a study on 26 generations of genetically improved domestic chickens of Mazandaran showed that, the rate of inbreeding for this population is relatively low (Ghorbani and Omrani 1399). In another study to estimate the inbreeding rate of Indigenous Kokok balenggek chicken (KBC) population in Indonesia, the researchers estimated the inbreeding coefficient to be 0.0031 (0.31%) and concluded that considering the inbreeding rate of herd is less than one percent, and inbreeding less than one percent indicates that one percent of heterozygosity is lost in one generation, the population is not endangered (Rusfidra et al. 2014). In another study on the population size of 37 protected local chicken breeds in five European countries, the relatively low inbreeding rates (0.02 to 0.71%) was reported (Spalona et al. 2007). In our study, the highest effect of individual inbreeding was shown on BW12. In this trait, for a one percent increase in inbreeding rate, the body weight decreases by 1.17 grams. Based on the another study performed on the Isfahan improved native chicken population (Jelokhani-Niaraki et al. 1400), it was shown that for every one percent increase in individual and maternal inbreeding, the WSM is reduced to 3.97 and 1.38 grams, respectively. In another study conducted on Mazandaran native fowls, the results showed that for every one percent increase in individual inbreeding, body weight decreased for the traits including BW12, BW8 and WSM (Ghorbani and Emrani 1399). The results of another study on the improved Fars native fowl revealed the greatest effect of inbreeding on body weight traits (8 and 12 weeks). In this study, for every one percent increase in individual inbreeding, body weight at 12 and 8 weeks decreased by 2.14 and 1.07, respectively (JelokhaniNiaraki and Ghorbani 2022). Conclusion: According to the findings in the present study, since the population is closed and under selection, the probability of inbreeding in the population is high. However, because there are controlled matings in the population of breeding station of Khorasan Razavi indigenous fowl, the inbreeding rate in each generation has increased slightly, which shows the appropriate management practices are running in selecting the best birds. Best management practices such as controlling the matings between birds can prevent an increase in population inbreeding as well as its possible negative effects on the traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eggs are highly perishable due to high moisture content and nutrients. This study aimed to investigate the effect of coating with black seed oil and rosemary extract on egg physical, chemical, functional and microbial characteristics. For this purpose, 300 eggs consisted of control group, eggs coated with black seed oil, and samples coated with black seed oil and 1, 2, and 3% rosemary extract were prepared. Throughout the six weeks of storage at 4 °C, thickness, weight loss, Haugh unit, yolk index, pH, amount of egg white foam production and microbial features were investigated. The weight loss in the control group was 6.64 and 4.80 g in the control group and the treatment with 3% rosemary extract, respectively. In the control group, Haugh unit was decreased from about 75 on the first day to 31.38 after six weeks storage. Haugh unit in the egg group coated with 3% rosemary extract was 41.76. The microbial load of shell after six weeks of storage in the control sample was 4.59 log CFU/g, and in the samples coated with black seed oil alone and in the presence of 1%, 2% and 3% rosemary extract were 4.32 and 3.99, 3.27, 2.30 log CFU/g, respectively. Due to the bactericidal effect of coating components, egg-shell microbial load was decreased. The coating was able to increase the shelf life up to six weeks.

The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of using nanoliposomes vitamin D3 (NVitD) in diet on performance and egg quality of laying hens. One hundred and twenty Leghorn laying hens (Hy-line W-80 Commercial strain) were used in a completely randomized design with four treatments, five replicates and six hens per replicate for six weeks. The treatments consisted of: 1- control with 3300 IU VitD/kg of diet, 2- 4950 IU VitD/kg of diet 3- 3300 IU NVitD/kg of diet and 4- 4950 IU NVitD/kg of diet. In the second three weeks of the experiment, the hens that received 4950 IU VitD/kg in their diet had the most feed intake in comparison with others. The egg yolk VitD content was increased significantly with increasing VitD concentration in hens diet. In equal amounts of diet VitD, application of nanoliposomes reduced the VitD content of egg yolk. Egg yolk cholesterol concentrations increased when using NVitD. The results of the present experiment showed that the use of NVitD did not have a significant effect on the production performance and egg quality traits of laying hens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Egg contamination by Salmonella enteritidis is one of the most important causes of foodborne gastroenteritis throughout the world and the common method which can be used to inactivate this bacteria is pasteurization. In this study, the pasteurization of intact egg was mathematically modelled using a CFD technique. The results were compared with experimental data and it was found that the model could reasonably forecast the temperature of egg during pasteurization (R²>0.98). The model showed that in order to predict the temperature variation of the slowest heating zone (SHZ) with higher accuracy, it is necessary to to incorporate the influence of natural convection currents induced by the hot eggshell walls in the pasteurization process. Results indicated that the SHZ keeps moving during pasteurization and eventually stays in a region that is about 25% of the egg height from the bottom after 300 s of heating. These results also show that the time required to reduce the Salmonella enteritidis population in cold point of eggs to 5D is approximately 28 minutes. This model could serve as an important tool in better understanding of the pasteurization process, choosing the best process parameters and facilitate process optimization of intact egg pasteurization towards industrial implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this Study, the egg white fish (Rutilus frisii kutum) hydrolyzed protein was produced. Hydrolysis was performed by alcalase enzyme in 60, 120, 180, and 240 minutes and their effects on degree of hydrolysation were evaluated. The results showed that the highest degree of hydrolysis was obtained in 240 minutes. Then, in order to separate peptides, based on their molecular weights, Millipore ultra filters (3, 10 and 30 KDa) were used. The antioxidant properties of hydrolyzed protein and peptide fractions 3, 10 and 30 KDa were measured, which can compete well with synthetic antioxidants such as BHT. Four antioxidant tests including DPPH, ABTS, Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and Ferrous (Fe2+) ion chelating ability were evaluated. In three antioxidant tests DPPH, ABTS and chelation of iron ions at a concentration of 5 mg, the highest percentage of inhibitory was observed in the treatment of hydrolyzed protein 78, 92 and 69, respectively. In the antioxidant test, fraction reduction of iron ions less than 3 kDa showed the highest absorption (1.25) at a concentration of 4 mg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing environmental hazards from the use of synthetic polymers has led to the diversity and development of new technologies for packaging perishable products, including animal, poultry and aquatic products. Natural polymers in the form of edible films or coatings can be used to produce biodegradable packaging. Cellulose derivatives including methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and carboxymethylcellulose are among the most popular polysaccharide hydrocolloids used in the production of films and coatings. The sensory, nutritional and functional properties of edible film and coatings can be modified by various materials and methods. Also, various active compounds are placed in the film and coating solution to improve the quality, stability and safety of packaged foods. Therefore, when using edible films and coatings, it is necessary to consider both the physical properties of biopolymer materials and their functional properties. Cellulose derivatives have been used in the packaging of animal products including raw animal meat, poultry and aquatic products, meat products derived from them and eggs in the form of simple, composite and active edible films and coatings in order to maintain quality and increase shelf life. Legal, economic, cultural and marketing considerations must be considered in order to develop the use of biopackaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The egg structures of eight Dioctria species known in Turkey, i.e., D. abdominalis, D. arcana, D. cornuta, D. flavipennis, D. hermonensis, D. linearis, D. sudetica, D. valida were examined and described in detail, using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The material was collected from various habitats such as watersides, forest areas and crop fields within Adana, Aksaray, Mersin, Nigde, Karaman and Konya provinces between 2006 and 2007. Dioctria eggs are characterized as: 1) ovoid in shape and brown in color; 2) operculum at the anterior pole of the egg; 3) one or two micropyles at the center of the operculum; 4) aeropyles scattered in the body region and operculum or only in the former. The eggs were photographed to provide useful information to the systematics of Dioctria genus.

Background and Objectives: Salmonellosis is one of the most important diseases among humans and poultry worldwide. Contaminated eggs are important sources of salmonellosis outbreak in humans. The aim of this research was to investigate the rate of contamination of eggs with Salmonella spp. and to evaluate their drug resistance pattern in Ardabil city. Methods: A total of 110 egg samples (37 native eggs, 41 bulk eggs, and 32 labeled industrial eggs), were collected randomly from retail stores in different parts of Ardabil city during the second half of the year 2019. Shell and contents of the eggs, were evaluated for Salmonella contamination using standard culture methods, and Salmonella serotyping and PCR assay were used for definite diagnosis of salmonella isolates. standard disk diffusion method was used to determine antimicrobial resistance of the isolates against 15 antimicrobial agents. Results: Out of 110 egg samples examined, 4 eggs (3.63%), were infected with Salmonella. Shell contamination of native eggs, bulk eggs, and industrial eggs with Salmonella were 5.40%, 2.43%, and 0%, respectively. Salmonella contamination in the contents of the native eggs was 2.94%, while no contamination was observed in the contents of bulk eggs and industrial eggs. S. typhimurium was detected by serotyping and PCR technique on positive samples. Among the 15 antibiotics studied, the highest resistance was observed to streptomycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and nalidixic acid with 100% and the lowest resistance was to ceftazidime and florfenicol with 40% and nitrofurantoin with 20%. Conclusion: The findings of this study were indicative of the presence of Salmonella contamination in native eggs and bulk eggs compared to the industrial eggs, thus it is of great importance to observe the hygienic points, including proper and adequate cooking of eggs. Also, excessive use of antibiotics in poultry farms should be avoided to prevent the spread of resistant bacteria.

Cake batter is a camplen emulsion of air babbles and oil droplets in which the egg plays a key role in foam formation, absorption of air molecules and volume in the cake. However, regular consumption of eggs due to high levels of cholesterol and saturated fatty acids, increases cardiovascular disease and can lead to allergies for some people. Barly aquafaba is a thick liquid obtained form cooking barly, which stabilizes the foam due to significant amounts of active compounds and proteins. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of different levels of barly aquafaba (0, 25, 50 and 100%) and xanthan gum (0, 0.25 and 0.5%) as an egg replacer on physical, chemical, rheological and organoleptic properties of oily cake. According to the obtained results, barly aquafaba had an acceptable foaming property due to high protein quality cake samples containing barly aquafaba upto 50% had similar characteristics to control cake samples. However, increasing the replacement of 75 and 100% of eggs with barly aguafaba led to a significant decrease (p<0.05) in physical. Chemical, rheological and sensory properties of eggless cake samples. 0.5% of xanthan gum resulted in improved sensory properties of eggless cake samples, increased moisture content and reduced firmness in the cake samples replaced with 50% barly aquafaba. The results showed that barly aquafaba can be used as a partial replacer for eggs up to 50% while maintaining the sensory, physical and rheological properties if the oily cake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Organic chlorine pollutants are stable in the environment and dangerous to the health of living organisms. Among these compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can be carcinogenic to humans and affect brain function, nervous system, reproductive system, and the immune system. They could enter the body through many ways including eating or drinking contaminated water and food such as chicken egg. Materials and methods: Sampling of 4 brand of chicken eggs was performed in all seasons in Tehran, Iran 2017. The mixed solvent of Hexane: Dichloromethane (same ratio) was used for extraction applying ultrasonic method. Then, the two phases were separated using concentrated sulfuric acid. They were then condensed by a rotary machine with a vacuum pump under a gentle nitrogen gas and purified using silica gel column or florisil. Finally, the concentration of each PCB was measured by the GC-MS device. Results: In all samples, the mean polychlorinated biphenyls (1.40±0.3 pg WHO-TEQ /g fat) was lower than the standard range and the highest concentration was associated with PCB 28 (mean value= 0.802 pg WHO-TEQ / g fat). One of the brands (B) had the highest average of PCBs, and the most contaminated eggs were found in winter (1.822 pgWHO-TEQ/g fat). Conclusion: In this study the average of each PCB was lower than the standard values in different types of eggs, indicating no risk to the consumers.

In this study reproductive biology of broodstock and larval rearing technique of Acanthopagrus latus was investigated. Also, different development stages of egg and larval in a period of 42 days are described. The diameter of fertilized eggs were 0.77-0.85 mm. The eggs hatched in 32 h between 19-21◦C. Newly hatched out larvae had mean body weight of 84.6 µg and total length of 1.76-1.87 mm. At the end of this study period, yellowfin seabream larval reached to 5170 µg mean body weight and standard length of 12.1-12.6 mm. Gulping the air and swim bladder inflation occurred during first week of larval life, specially as from the sixth day after hatching. In the current study larval were able to ingest and digest rotifer, artemia nauplii and microparticulate diet successfully. High mortality of larvae were observed between days 20 and 30 after hatching. Average survival rate of larval was around %43, when the study finished at day 42 after hatching. The techniques used in this research to deal with yellowfin seabream broodstock and larval were found to be suitable and led to successful spawning and larval's metamorphosis into fry in captive condition.

Background: Egg shell washing is one of the simplest and least costly methods used today by many people to clean egg shells. Objective: The effect of egg shell washing on its physicochemical quality was investigated. Methods: A total of 45 egg samples were collected for physicochemical properties (including white pH, yolk index, weight loss percentage, and albumina height) during storage in the refrigerator (days 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20) before and after wash. The eggs were divided into control group, including unclean eggs, and the groups of washed eggs with cold water or washed eggs with a drop of liquid dishwashing. Each test was performed in three replications. The mean of them was analyzed by one-way ANOVA. Duncan's multi-domain test method was used as a post hoc comparisons at the probability level of P

Background and purpose: Contamination of food with mycotoxins is among the major threats to food security, and human and animal health that cause significant economic losses in countries. This contamination is found in poultry and animal products and can pose risks to human health. Despite the mass production and consumption of egg, this product has not been well evaluated for the presence of mycotoxins. According to previous studies, there is high possibility of fungal infections and consequently production of mycotoxins in poultry feed. Here, we aimed to perform a quality control study on the safety of this product in Mazandaran province market by developing current techniques. Materials and methods: In this experimental study, 45 egg samples were collected from three cities in summer 2019, during two phases. Aflatoxin and ochratoxin were extracted using appropriate solvents. In the ELISA method, the extracted samples were directly analyzed while being purified by immunoaffinity column for HPLC measurement. Results: Among the samples examined, aflatoxin G2 (0.010 to 4.726 μg/Kg) was found in 36 cases. These values are lower than maximum residue limit allowed for foods. Ochratoxin was not detected in any sample. Conclusion: According to current study, there were low levels of aflatoxin in the eggs and they can be considered as a safe food in terms of aflatoxin contamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antibiotics are widely used for preventing and treating several diseases, as well as for promoting growth in food-producing animals. This widespread use of antibiotic may cause residuals in foodstuffs, as well as the induction of allergic reactions in humans. In addition, resistance to pathogenic bacteria has been constantly weakening as a result of antibiotic use. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the presence of common three groups of antibiotics including fluoroquinolone, tetracycline and sulfonamide in chicken meat and table eggs consumed in Islamic Republic of Iran Army (IRIA). A total of 70 poultry samples, including chicken meat and eggs from IRIA‘s cold storages, were analyzed using ELISA for determination of antibiotic residues. Of the chicken samples analyzed, 35 (100%), 30 (85.71%) and 28 (80.00%) were contaminated with fluoroquinolone, tetracycline and sulfonamide, respectively. The mean levels (±SE) of fluoroquinolone, tetracycline and sulfonamide were found to be 72.59±4.30 µg/kg, 15.35±1.6 µg/kg and 36.52±3.61 µg/kg in chicken samples, respectively. 4 (11.43%) of chicken samples exceeded the maximum residue level (MRL). The study revealed that 4 (11.43%), 8 (22.85%) and zero of 35 egg samples were positive for fluoroquinolone, tetracycline and sulfonamide, respectively. The mean levels (±SE) of fluoroquinolone, tetracycline and sulfonamide were found to be 1.23±0.6 µg/kg, 2.84±0.94 µg/kg and zero µg/kg in egg samples, respectively. This study indicated that some consumable chicken meat and eggs of IRIA contain residues of antibiotics, therefore, it is necessary to monitor protein products regarding to antimicrobial residues for public health.

This study was performed to evaluate the effects of folic acid (FA) and methionine (Mt) administration on egg 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF) content, levels of zinc in yolk and serum and concentration of homocysteine on Hy-line W36 hens from 20 to 26 weeks of age. The experiment was conducted as a 4×4 factorial arrangement of treatments in randomized complete design with four levels of Mt (0.25, 0.32, 042, 0.48 mg/kg of diet) and four levels of FA (0, 5, 10, 15 mg/kg of diet). Fortification of laying hens diets with FA 0, 5, 10 and15 mg/kg of diet increased 5-MTHF into yolk significantly (p

The presence of melamine in foods is one of the important issues in terms of food safety and consumer health. Extraction is the first step in determining the amount of melamine in foods. Therefore, in the current study, melamine extraction from egg was optimized using response surface methodology based on the central composite design. The percentage of water used in the extraction phase containing water/acetonitrile, extraction phase volume, extraction time, pH of extraction phase, and hydrochloric acid concentration in the extraction phase were considered as the studied variables for optimizing extraction conditions. Finally, the amount of melamine present in four brands of egg was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using internal standard method. Optimum extraction conditions were obtained in the form of 39.28% water in the extraction phase, 5.06 mL extraction solvent volume, 12.48 min extraction time, pH 5.04 and acid concentration of 0.73 M. The amount of melamine in the egg samples was in the range of 0.19-0.45 mg/kg. Regarding the amount of melamine authorized by the EU and the US Food and Drug Administration, it can be concluded that the melamine content of the samples is within the limits of the EU standard and only in two samples was more of the USFDA standard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Organic chlorine pollutants are stable in the environment and dangerous to the health of living organisms. Among these compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can be carcinogenic to humans and affect brain function, nervous system, reproductive system, and the immune system. They could enter the body through many ways including eating or drinking contaminated water and food such as chicken egg. Materials and methods: Sampling of 4 brand of chicken eggs was performed in all seasons in Tehran, Iran 2017. The mixed solvent of Hexane: Dichloromethane (same ratio) was used for extraction applying ultrasonic method. Then, the two phases were separated using concentrated sulfuric acid. They were then condensed by a rotary machine with a vacuum pump under a gentle nitrogen gas and purified using silica gel column or florisil. Finally, the concentration of each PCB was measured by the GC-MS device. Results: In all samples, the mean polychlorinated biphenyls (1.40±0.3 pg WHO-TEQ /g fat) was lower than the standard range and the highest concentration was associated with PCB 28 (mean value= 0.802 pg WHO-TEQ / g fat). One of the brands (B) had the highest average of PCBs, and the most contaminated eggs were found in winter (1.822 pgWHO-TEQ/g fat). Conclusion: In this study the average of each PCB was lower than the standard values in different types of eggs, indicating no risk to the consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Regarding to the ever-increasing consumption of egg and consequently enhancement of its production during recent years, consideration to this output's market integration has special importance. Considering the fact that information on market integration may provide specific evidence as to the competitiveness of market, the effectiveness of arbitrage and the efficiency of pricing could be, likewise, useful to guide subsequent interventions aimed at improving the performance of market. In this context, in present study, validity of Law of One Price (LOP) will be tested in the egg market and among selected provinces. Materials and Methods: Nonlinearity naturally extracted from local market due to existence of transportation and other transaction costs, so common cointegration test results are not suitable for market integration. In this study, at first, for being sure that series follow nonlinear behavior, Luukkonen et al. (1988) and BDS nonlinearity tests were used. Then for testing Law of One price in the egg market, nonlinear unit root test proposed by Emmanouilides and Fousekis (2012), which is an auxiliary regression for ESTAR model, was used. The data are daily retail prices of egg with the sample period ranging from April 2006 to march 2014 for north-west provinces of Iran including West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, Ardebil, Tehran and Zanjan, which were obtained from State Live Stock Affairs Logistics Incorporated Company. Results and Discussion: Based on the DF-GLS unit root test, the null hypothesis of unit root for egg price differentials was rejected. So, all series of price differentials are stationary. In the next step nonlinearity of price differentials of egg between two provinces was examined. In BDS test, at the beginning, an ARMA model was estimated then the test was carried out to the residual of estimated model with embedding dimension (m) 2-8 and the dimensional distance (ε) chosen equals to 0.5 and 2 times of standard deviation of the data. Based on the results from this test and Luukkonen et al. (1988) test, null of linearity was rejected and existent of nonlinear relation between series was confirmed. Then, existence of a unit root in price differential series was carried out by nonlinear method. The results showed that mentioned markets are well integrated and LOP holds in all market pairs in a way that strong version of LOP holds for all market pairs except Tehran-Ardebil that weak version LOP holds for them. Conclusion: Results of this study showed that there is full transmission of shocks among selected provinces and implies that the markets considered are well integrated. It means that arbitrage activities profitably use existent opportunities and enhance economic efficiency. Moreover, the egg markets in selected provinces are taken into account as a unit market so if the government performs any kind of policy in one of these provinces (in the context of considered market), the effects of that policy will be transferred to other provinces and the welfare of consumers and producers in these provinces will be affected. Therefore, it is recommended to policy makers to regard this fact while they are choosing any new policy and to be aware of adopting the policies regionally.

Background and Objectives: Egg directly affects family nutrition health. The main contaminants of this product is presence of pathogenic bacteria. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antibiotic resistance of Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. Methods: After culturing and isolation processes, S. aureus, E. coli, and Salmonella bacteria were isolated from contents and shell of eggs. Then, antibiotic resistance was determined by agar disk diffusion method. Results: In this study, 22% of the egg shell samples were infected with S. aureus, 4% with E. coli, and 5% with Salmonella, also, 2% of contents samples were infected with S. aureus, 1% with E. coli, and 1% with Salmonella. In evaluation of antibiotic resistance patterns of bacteria isolated from content, the highest resistance in S. aureus was to ampicillin and gentamicin and in E. coli isolates was to ampicillin, clindamycin, and penicillin. Salmonella isolates showed resistance to all the antibiotics used. In evaluation of antibiotic resistance patterns of bacteria isolated from shell, S. aureus isolates showed the highest resistance to clindamycin, and penicillin, in E. coli it was to ampicillin, cefotaxime, and piperacillin. Salmonella isolates had a very high mean resistance to all the disks used. Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that lack of attention to important points in the use and storage of egg can lead to the transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Also, due to the high antibiotic resistance of isolated bacteria, excessive and unconscious use of antibiotics in chickens’ diet, which increases antibiotic resistance, must be prevented.

Background and purpose: Contamination of food with mycotoxins is among the major threats to food security, and human and animal health that cause significant economic losses in countries. This contamination is found in poultry and animal products and can pose risks to human health. Despite the mass production and consumption of egg, this product has not been well evaluated for the presence of mycotoxins. According to previous studies, there is high possibility of fungal infections and consequently production of mycotoxins in poultry feed. Here, we aimed to perform a quality control study on the safety of this product in Mazandaran province market by developing current techniques. Materials and methods: In this experimental study, 45 egg samples were collected from three cities in summer 2019, during two phases. Aflatoxin and ochratoxin were extracted using appropriate solvents. In the ELISA method, the extracted samples were directly analyzed while being purified by immunoaffinity column for HPLC measurement. Results: Among the samples examined, aflatoxin G2 (0.010 to 4.726 µg/Kg) was found in 36 cases. These values are lower than maximum residue limit allowed for foods. Ochratoxin was not detected in any sample. Conclusion: According to current study, there were low levels of aflatoxin in the eggs and they can be considered as a safe food in terms of aflatoxin contamination.

Consumer demand is growing for the nutritious and healthy snacks today. Since the snacks classification in foods with minimal nutritional value and it is one of the most popular snacks among people, especially children and teenagers, so snacks enrichment seems necessary. The purpose of this study is the replacement of 10% of the corn with soy flour and soy formulated flour with the egg properties in extruded snack production in a completely randomized design. The amount of protein, expansion coefficient, hardness, color and sensory characteristics of samples were evaluated. Image processing technique and the Image J software were used to measure the color values. The results revealed that addition of both components increased the amount of protein in snack samples. Also the results showed that more than 5% replacement of corn with these materials increased hardness and reduced expansion coefficient and L* and b* color values and the negative effect of soy flour was more than soy formulated with the egg properties. Finally the results indicated samples containing 5% soy formulated flour with the egg properties had the highest score in the sensory evaluation especially flavor and aroma in compare to the other samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background & aim:Foodborne disease, a major health and economic problem in industrialized and non-industrialized countries.The purpose of this study was to investigate Salmonella contamination of eggs by native province kohgiloyeh va Boyerahmad by PCR and evaluation of their drug resistance. Methods: This cross-sectional study-descriptive study of 210 eggs collected from native Kohgiluyeh va Boyerahmad done. Biochemical tests for identification of bacteria was isolated. Salmonella bacteria have suspected reactions were tested by PCR with specific primers invA genes were examined. Results: The results showed that 14 number of eggs (6/66 percent) were contaminated with Salmonella genus. Dehdasht area of highest contamination and less pollution Charusa areas, Dyshmuk, Lndeh and was Basht And no significant correlation was found between the type and extent of contamination and the region.The antibiotic resistance of most resistance to penicillin (100%) was observed.This study uses data from the nineteenth and application soft ware spss version microsofte office 2007-square test and Fisher were analyzed. Significant level of p>0/05 was considered. Conclusion: Microbial agents such as Salmonella can cause food spoilage and disease are. Resistance in Salmonellais recommended to avoid the in discriminate use of antibiotics in live stock and poultry should be avoided. Key words: Salmonella,Egg,drug resistance, invA, PCR.

Understanding the embryogenesis of Bunni is a useful tool for finding the time and suitable environmental conditions for spawning, growth requirements and use of techniques to increase the growth rate and survival. The stages of embryonic development for Bunnei (Barbus sharpeyi) was investigated in 22°C. The reared brood stocks were spawned in captivity condition. The oocytes were spherical, brown and very adhesive. The cleavage was fast and the first division was recorded within 15-20 minutes after fertilization. The blastulation and gastrulation were investigated in 7:40 and 13:10 hours after fertilization with the yolk sac diameter of 1.18±0.061mm (Mean±SD), respectively. The organogenesis was started 21 hours after the fertilization, when the blastopore was closed and notochord was formed. The embryonic stages were continued by appearance the brain, the somites and the melanophores on the yolk sac. The heart was beaten and shown the blood circulation 65 hours after the fertilization. The head, tail and pectoral fins were moved frequently. The embryo reached to pre hatching and final hatching 79:10 and 84:10 hours after fertilization, respectively, and the embryo existed from corion with the length of about 5.29±0/121mm (Mean±SD).

Background and Objectives: Red meat, chicken meat and egg play a crucial role in supplying human dietary protein. Bacteria of enterobacteriaceae family, particularly Salmonella spp. Are one of the factors that endanger the health of protein food product. This study was undertaken aimed at determining the contamination level of these foodstuffs with Salmonella spp. and then evaluating their antibiotic resistance pattern. Methods: In this descriptive-cross sectional study, chicken, domestic eggs, and industrial eggs, each of them 100 samples, and 150 samples of red meats (beef and lamb) were collected through random sampling in Talesh city, and were assessed for contamination with Salmonella. For a definitive identification, biochemical assays as well as agglutination tests with related antisera were used. Data were analyzed using chi-square test. The significance level of differences was considered p

In this study, the contamination of poultry meat and eggs to pathogenic bacteria was investigated in Iran, for over three decades. Health assessment of these two products is highly important due to their high level of consumption and consequent health risks of food borne diseases such as salmonellosis. Many reports indicate the presence of majority of pathogenic bacteria such as campylobacter, staphylococci, salmonellas, etc. in the poultry abattoirs across the country. It seems that most of these contaminations had been occurred through cross contamination during slaughtering or other stages of processing. Although many bacterial contaminations have been reported in eggs (e.g., streptococci, staphylococci, or Escherichia coli), most of studies have focused on salmonella as eggs are among the major transmission routes of this bacterium. In several suveys, salmonella has been isolated from the shell of the eggs of native breeds. According to the studies, campylobacter contamination has not been reported. Moreober, occurrence rate with other bacteria species was very low. It seems that due to the high proportions of chicken meat and eggs in the food basket of community, even low levels of contamination could be of great concern. It was concluded that maintaining of hygienic conditions and improving the knowledge of producers in the food production chain could be effective in reducing the overall contamination of pathogenic bacterial.

Iodine is an essential element in human diet and is found in many types of animal-origin foods. Nevertheless, iodine defect is a serious problem in many countries throughout the world. This study was aimed to determine the iodine contents of beef, lamb as well as eggs at ShahreKord retails. Forty beef, 40 lamb and 60 egg samples were obtained from ShahreKord markets during spring and winter of 2011. Iodine content of the samples was determined by acid digestion and Sandell-Kolthoff-base method. According to the results, the iodine content (mean ± SD) of lamb in winter and spring was 11.32 ± 3.79 and 105.65 ± 52.635 µg/kg, respectively. Meanwhile, the iodine content for beef samples was estimated at 16.17 ± 5.69 and 115.25 ± 41.18 µg/kg in winter and spring, respectively. Moreover, it was found that iodine content of egg yolk in winter was 340.40 ± 122.60 µg/kg and in spring was 462.63± 62.71 µg/kg. However, iodine content of egg albumin in winter and spring was 33.01 ± 14.56 and 47.87 ± 14.40 µg/kg, respectively. In this study, a significant (p>?) relationship was not observed between the iodine content of albumen and egg yolk. It was concluded that beef, lamb and egg could be considered as a significant source of iodine for human.

Zoonotic bacterial diseases are considered as the most important human infectious diseases. In this category, a disease that transfer and infect human through food has an special role. Among foods with animal origin, eggs due to their application as food ingredient in food products, like sauces, spices, ice creams and other food products that may use in half cooked or crude forms, always has the potential to transfer microbial pathogens to human. This study is about to prove that presence of remainder feces on eggshells leads the penetration of bacterial agents into egg yolk. A total of 120 daily egg samples (with and without fecal contamination) were collected from henneries around Tabriz and transferred immediately to microbiology laboratory. After performing microbial examinations (using BHI Broth, BHI Agar, Blood Agar, Selenite F, Tetrationate, XLD,SS Agar),Gram Staining, Oxidase and Catalase tests, bacteria of eggshells and egg yolks has been identified. Out of 120 eggs, 15.83% bacterial contaminants were found in egg yolks samples. Among them, 73.68% were gram negative and 26.31% were gram positive. Among gram negatives, Pseudomonas with occurrence of 8.3% and in gram positives group, Bacillus with abundance of 4.16% were the most frequent bacterias. Also in samples collected from eggshells, 99.16% of the eggs demonstrated bacterial contamination which 23.55% of positive samples were among gram negative group and 76.44% were gram positive. The most contribution of eggshell gram negative bacterias were relevant to Pseudomonas, E.coli, Proteus and Citrobacter with respectively 18.33%,10.83%,5.83% and 4.16% rations. Among gram positive bacteria that isolates form eggshell samples for the most frequent bacterias, were Bacillus, Staphylococccus, Streptococcus, Rhodococcus and Micrococcus with respectively 80.00%, 34.16%, 15%, 9.16% and 7.5% rations. Use and consumption of eggs with shells contaminated with faces in food products is a serious risk factor for human health and can lead to zoonotic bacterial diseases by transferring bacterial pathogens.

During 2 months (from April to June, 2008) we studied the suitable quantity of Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (HUFA) for desirable fecundity and egg diameter of female broodstock of white leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Similar dry food containing Isonitrogeneous material (31.5% protein) and Isolipid (6.9% lipid) was used but with different levels of HUFA (1, 2 and 3%). Also, the HUFA of natural foods (Perinereis worm, melalis bivalvia and cuttlefish) was analyzed. We compared the effects of four levels of dietary HUFA (1, 2 & 3 % HUFA of dry diets and the average HUFA of natural diets) on fecundity and egg diameter of female broodstock of white leg shrimp. The fecundity and egg diameter of natural diet and HUFA 3% were not significantly different (P>0.05). The fecundity of natural diet and HUFA 3% was significantly higher than the other two treatments (P

Fungal flora in egg, yolk sac larvae and larvae of Acipenser persicus were identified and studied. Totally, 270 specimens from Shahid Beheshti Sturgeon Rearing Center were examined. A heterogeneous solution from samples>was prepared and inoculated on culture media SDA+C and CMA+C in lines under sterile conditions. Wet mounts were prepared for the identification of Saprolegnia sp. and the inoculants were cultured on culture media GP containing gentamycin and chloramphenicol. We found Penicillium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Yeast, Mucor sp., Aspergillus niger and Paecilomuces on egg samples in order of frequency and in water samples we observed Penicillium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Yeast, Mucor sp., Aspergillus niger, and Paecilomyces. Fungal species identified in yolk sac larvae included Penicilliium sp., Cladosporium sp., Fusarium sp. ,Alternaria sp., Yeast and in water samples we found Penicillium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Yeast, while in larvae we saw Cladosporium sp., Penicilliium sp., Fusarium sp., Alternaria sp., Aspergilus fumigatus, Yeast and Mucor spp. In water samples containing larvae we were able to identify Cladosporium sp., Penicilliium sp., Fusarium sp., Yeast and Aspergilus niger. Fungal species such as Cladosporium sp., Penicillium, Fusarium, Yeast and Saprolegnia were detected in all four sampling mediums. T-test indicated no significant differences in total counts (colonies/2 plates in all samples) in eggs (15.08±3.51 colony forming unit; CFU) and in water (15.91±2.63) samples. However, t-test indicated significant differences in total counts in yolk sac larvae (5.33±1.05) and in water (11.77±2.39) samples. T-test showed no significant differences in total counts of larvae (32±12.46) and water (31.11±12.79) samples.

Background: Toxocariasis is a parasitic disease caused by presence of Toxocara larva in human body. Soil as a reservoir maintained eggs of parasite and has important role in dissemination of disease because dogs and cats defecate eggs of parasite by feces. Despite there are large number of stray cats and dogs in urban areas such as Arak city, we need to collect information about soil pollution in public places. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate soil contamination with Toxocara eggs in public parks in Arak city. Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 60 soil samples were collected from 15 public parks in the Arak city during the summer 2015. The soil samples were provided by flotation method and examined by microscope. Results: The results of this study showed that 4 (26.6%) of 15 parks were infected with Toxocara eggs. The highest rate of infection was observed in the walking and picnic site of parks. Also, in this study, two contaminated parks were located in the center and two parks were located in the southeastern of city. Conclusion: Considering that soil contamination with Toxocara eggs was high in Arak city, it seems that the health authorities should design and implement programs in order to prevent human infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of three levels of Rainbow Trout male age (2+, 3+ and 4+ years old), on duration of sperm motility, spermatocrite and eyed egg rate in rainbow trout were studied in Kelardasht Fish Breeding Center. The sperm from 2+ year old males activated by water showed the shortest motility (24.86 sec) (P= 0.007), while those of the 3+ and 4+ years old revealed the longest sperm motility. No significant difference was found between sperm motility of the 3+ and 4+ males. The average spermatocrite in different age groups of male fish was significantly different. This was showed to be 32.66% in 2+ years and 2126 % in 3+ year's male age groups respectively. Eyed egg rate was highest in 2+ years age (86/82%), and was significantly different with the 3+ age group (P=0.02). The eyed egg rate of the 4+ age group was not significantly different with those of the 2+ and 3+ age groups......

Studies showed that Thyroxine can play an important role on fish growth, osmoregulation system, and other physiological activities. Since the direct effect of thyroxine on growth and metamorphose of bony fish larvae has not been yet approved, therefore, present study were carried out in Shahid Ansary propagation and cultivation farm in order to find out the way of effect of this hormone on the survirval rate and early growth stage of silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) fertiled eggs that were bathed in thyroxin with concentrations of 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 ppm (each one, replicates) for 6 hours. Then they were transfered into large incubators (zoog) with running water. After hatching all larvae were placed in mentioned thyroxin concentration bath for another 6 hours before being transfered into large incubators. Larvae stayed inzoogs until the yolk-sac was absorbed. Finally, live silver carp larvae were counted in separated plates. Results of present study indicated that the ra tio of hatched eggs in 0.5 ppm of thyroxin concentration was higher than other treatment.

Objective: This descriptive study was conducted to determine the incidence of salmonella contamination of eggs being consumed in Shiraz. Methods: 500 eggs were selected randomly at different times on a basis of random sampling from four centers of egg distribution in the city. They were examined in microbiology lab for detection of salmonella, proteus and E.coli. Samples from the shell and contents of each of 500 eggs were taken for enrichment and inoculation on suitable selective culture media. Findings: 3 out of 500 eggs were shown to be positive for salmonella (0.6%). Salmonella typhimurium and c2 (Newport) were isolated from shell surfaces of two of the eggs and only one egg carried Sal.typhimurium in its contents. Furthermore, we isolated E.coli from 9% of the eggs (Either from shells or contents) and proteus from 16% of the eggs. Conclusion: The public health implications of salmonella infections through consumption of eggs have been discussed.

In this study experiments were conducted to evaluate Clostridium botulinum type E in fresh and smoked Cyprinus carpio (60 samples) Rutilus frisii kutum (60 samples) and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (60 samples). One hundred and eighty samples of fish were collected from different smoking plants, beach sein and breeding center in Mazandaran province, were sorted in order to quality and kind of fish. Two methods (Toxicology and Bacteriology) were used for recognition of toxin and bacterium C. botulinum type E. Bacterium was identified using cooked meat broth, egg yolk agar and biochemical tests. Toxin was recognized using antitoxin type E. The results indicated that 7 (3.8%), 4 (2.2%) and 2 (1.1%) samples of fresh and smoked Cyprinus carpio, Rutilus frisii kutum and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix were contaminated to C. botulinum type E respectively, (10 samples of smoked fish, 3 samples of fresh fish in total). In a conclusion, a serious consideration on handling and processing of fish .....

The ribbon fishes, belonging to the family Trichiuridae, are one of the most important protein resources in the Indian Ocean. A considerable density of the dominant species of this family, Trichiurus lepturus has been observed in the Oman Sea. During the conducted cruises in the northern part of the Oman Sea, Gonadosomatic index (GSI) and Hepatosomatic index (HSI) were estimated according to the size of the female groups of Trichiurus lepturus. GSI increases significantly from September to next April (P

Background: Food contamination with fungi and the production of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin, allow the toxins to enter human body. Continuous contamination with low doses of these agents can act as a major risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma. Thus the present study was carried out to evaluate the detection of contamination in eggs with aflatoxin by PCR method. Materials and Methods: In a cross-sectional study, a total of 144 suspicious and 211 intake eggs were collected and three samples of fungi including aspergillus niger, penicillium expansum, and fusarium verticillioides as negative controls and 14 samples of aspergillus flavus as positive controls were selected and examined using TLC and PCR. The results were analyzed through SPSS software. Results: By PCR, neither aflR, omt-A, and ver-1, nor-1 was detected in intake eggs by PCR. Of the suspected eggs, four samples with nor-1, two samples with aflR, and two samples with omt-A could be detected. Three samples of the 14 strains of aspergillus flavus were shown to be positive through the use of TLC and the four primers. One strain of aspergillus flavus was positive with all of the four primers; however, it was negative in TLC. Conclusion: The findings of this study indicated that PCR is a sensitive, fast, and specialized technique, but it cannot detect the presence of the fungi before the appearance of colonization. Thus for indicating toxcification, other complementary tests are also required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]