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From the ontological, epistemological and ethical point of view, Saint Augustine was influenced, besides the Scriptures, by the stoic philosophy, by Neoplatonism or, more exactly, by those thinkers that he designates under the expression: “Platonic philosophers”. Regarding the influence he received from the Stoics, the emphasis is placed not only on the concept of virtue, but also on other notions essentially related to the moral acting. As to the ontological and epistemological plane, it was mainly the Platonic or Neoplatonic vision of the two worlds that met in the Bishop of Hippo its most decisive adhesion. Thus, from one hand, there is the sensitive and, therefore, changeable, becoming, non-consistent and not self-sufficient world and, from the other hand, there is the spiritual and, consequently, unwithered, unchangeable, and eternal world. But the principal question requiring an explanation is this: who finally were the “Platonic philosophers” to whom the author of Confessions refers? It is this problematic, together with the ambiguities it raises, that I will explore throughout these reflections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Ciência & Saúde Coletiva is the property of Associacao Brasileira de Pos-Graduacao em Saude Coletiva and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this article is to explore the notion of freedom as an ontologically untransferable part of human natural right. We are not speaking of the full freedom of the sage, which few possess prevalently, but of a freedom to think imaginatively, according to one's own temperament, one's own disposition, and not merely according to the ruler's temperament, even though the ruler has the power to define what is just and pious. We will examine the ontological foundations of this kind of freedom, as well as its political consequences depicted in the final chapter of Spinoza's Theologico-Political Treatise. This freedom to opine, a necessary consequence of human nature, is accompanied by the requirement to share opinions with others, a requirement that grows as the individual's virtue grows. Thus, as embryonic active affects operate in the mind, the untransferable part of this freedom expands in a virtuous movement that limits the ruler's power to suppress the public expression of opinions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The connection between many-valued logics and modal logics is old. Łukasiewicz›s pioneering investigations in 1920 about future contingents through multivalued logics attempted to characterize modalities through truth values. Although modal and multivalued logics constitute autonomous fields of investigation, their interactions are very prolific. In this article, we investigate three-valued modal logics based on the three-valued logics LP, K3, TS and ST. More specifically, we discuss two possible ways to interpret modal sentences: (i) modal sentences □A and ◇A can receive only true or false; and (ii) modal sentences can also receive intermediate values. We argue that both characterizations have virtues and problems. In case (i), we argue that they validate modal principles that contradict their inferences at the propositional level. In case (ii), we argue that its proximity to classical logic imposes certain difficulties in some applications of these logics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neste artigo, pretendemos explorar a análise de Aristóteles sobre a amizade, examinando os três objetos de amizade - a virtude, a utilidade e o prazer. Explicaremos também por que razão estes três objetos da amizade colocam um desafio à definição da amizade como uma entidade comum e singular, a saber, como uma benevolência recíproca e consciente dotada de efeitos práticos. Mostra-se que os objetos da amizade são parte integrante do tipo de relação pessoal que a amizade constitui, tornando impossível uma definição comum.

Copyright of Hypnos is the property of Hypnos / Instituto Hypnos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Romanitas: Revista de Estudos Greco-Latinas is the property of Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Aspasia of Miletus (470? - 400?) is a figure whose history for us is nebulous and at the same time very clear. Nebulous because, as Marta Andrade (2022, p. 24) suggests, it is an existence, whose memory, like many others, posterity has rarely devoted attention or simply forgotten. But also clear because Aspasia has a persona constituted by what we call "tradition". Pericles' mistress. Socrates' teacher. Lysicles' wife. Her figure is often rescued in the shadow of the male figures with whom she was involved. Largely because the sources that rescue Aspasia mention her name in the margins, but also partly due to a methodological posture that sometimes ignores the names of women. In this article, I aim to resort to sources to bring out Aspasia's protagonism with regard to education and her pioneering rhetorical thoughts. In the first section, I will sketch a brief biography about the author, her political influence and her pedagogical skills. In the second section, I will deal especially with her contributions to rhetoric, addressing the speech attributed to her in Plato's Menexenus and the Funeral Oration attributed to Pericles by Thucydides. Finally, in the conclusion, in view of the theses developed, we will arrive at a more dignified image of Aspasia, glimpsing the portrait of a woman who pays tribute to courage and whose opinion directly affects her social and political body. In this way, we will better understand her advances in the pedagogical and rhetorical fields, seen as crucial for the development of Greek citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Seneca, in his Epistle XC, attributes to Posidonius the thesis that there was a time in human history when everyone was content to have nature as the main source of survival, while artificial resources were valued for their use and not for their possession and ostentation. A time when wise humans held political power authorized by equally virtuous people: a time called Golden Age (saeculo quod aureum). However, Seneca disagrees that there were wise humans at that time, as this is a characteristic provided by the use of Philosophy, an expendable tool for a period in which virtue was not knowledge about what is good, evil or indifferent. However, with the aging of the Universe, human behavior was dominated by addictions developed by the exacerbated use of non-essential elements and techniques for life. A custom that turned brothers into enemies, men in need into thieves. Now, if the youth of the Kosmos coincides with the existence of virtuous humans, would vices be signs of aging? If so, would the corruption movement that leads to ekpyrosis have any influence on human behavior? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between religions and sustainability allows different approaches, whether by religious diversity or by various initiatives in the field of education, spirituality, and human promotion. In the present article, we chose to present the basic concepts that guide the relationship between sustainability and spirituality, the different emphases that mobilize the environmental engagement of religions and, finally, the most significant religious and inter-religious initiatives from the 1990s to the present. However, this is not a quantitative assessment; rather, it is a way to verify the quality of religious commitment to sustainability, including hermeneutic and theological aspects: the relationship between the Creator, Humanity and Nature; sustainability and ecological virtues; environmental care and spirituality; and, recognition of Mother Earth. The results confirm the ecological awakening of religions and their environmental engagement, marked by the articulation between human ecology and environmental ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When treating the topic of sin, the tongue's sins are often omitted. Nevertheless, they seriously jeopardize human relationships and social harmony, just as much as evil acts. When addressed, however, these sins are not given due importance. As St. James affirms: "[...] the tongue is a small member and yet has great pretensions. Consider how small a fire can set a huge forest ablaze. The tongue is also a fire. It exists among our members as a world of malice [...] and setting the entire course of our lives on fire, itself set on fire by Gehenna" (James 3:5-6). As such, this article will present the sins of the tongue according to St. Thomas Aquinas, in order to demonstrate that they negatively influence our self-realization and that of others, and social well-being. Perhaps by understanding them more profoundly, we can avoid many evils within our lives, and thus build a better society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How to view the reform of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century and its relationship with virtue as an important issue in studying humanist philosophy. Humanists emphasize that virtue education is the foundation for cultivating personality and believe restoring the virtues of the church is the “cure” for the ills of the early modern church. Consilium de emendanda ecclesia (1537) is the Catholic humanists’ practice of virtue. This is reflected in proposals to strengthen educational norms and socio-moral disciplines and emphasize perfecting clerical virtue as the driving force for reform. In addition, under the guidance of virtue ethics, virtue politics becomes the guiding ideology of those humanists’ political practice, where they recognize the Pope´s authority and the one of the Church, associating virtue with the legitimacy of power. The virtue philosophy in Consilium forms the ideological foundation for the Reformation of the Catholic Church. The ancient Chinese scholar Dong Zhongshu (179-104 B.C.) practiced a similar politics of virtue. In Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn, he combined the legitimacy of rule with virtue based on the kings’ divine right, thus perpetuating the Confucian concept of the “sage”. Both Catholic humanists and Dong emphasized the importance of the rulers’ virtue as agents of God.

This paper challenges the prevailing interpretations about the role and the function of recollection in Plato’s Meno, by suggesting that recollection is a cognitive process inaugurated by a myth. This process sets out the methodological and epistemological context within two transitions are feasible: On the one hand, the methodological transition from the elenchus to the method of hypothesis and, on the other hand, the cognitive upshift from opinions to knowledge. Furthermore, this paper argues that Socrates uses the myth of recollection just when Meno niggles and tries to escape the inquiry, introducing the paradox. Based on my deductions, Socrates’ myth imprints on Meno’s soul a true belief which facilitates the process of recollection by rending Meno valiant in continuing the inquiry.

In Plato’s Republic V, 449a-457b, Socrates argues that the guardian class of Kallipolis will comprise both men and women and that women with the appropriate nature ought to receive the same education and fulfill the same tasks as their male counterparts. In this article I argue, against competing interpretations of this claim as dependent either on the necessity of abolishing the oikos or on eugenic principles, that Socrates’ argument ought to be understood as a genuine argument about women’s natural capabilities and ought to be interpreted in light of the Socratic debate about women’s virtues. Moreover, I show that the legal language mobilized, combined with polemical references to Aristophanes, serves the purpose of evoking Socrates’ trial, thus alerting the reader to the seriousness of the proposal in question.

In medieval literature, female characters can affect the course of events by speaking before an audience. These women are often maternal characters. In this article, I will analyze a reconfiguration of this paradigm by considering the example of the matriarch Irmenschart, depicted in Willehalm (c. 1210-20) by the Middle High German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach. An astute speech characterizes the intervention of the maternal character in the narrative in the imperial court for the benefit of her son, through whom she intercedes and whose conflict she mediates. This will rehabilitate the manly virtue of the members of the künne, restore her family's identity and, finally, ensure material assistance to Willehalm's cause. The mediator and intercessor nature that commands Irmenschart's role in the plot will also be perceived in the light of a possible connection to the Christian and Marian model of the mater mediatrix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article has two challenges. On the one hand, it seeks to outline some of the constitutive bases of ethics of sporting virtue in dialogue with the literature. On the other hand, it intends to demonstrate how these values are mobilized in the world of contemporary trekking. In methodological terms, the study is empirical-theoretical and seeks to align a socio-philosophical reflection on the ethics of sports virtue through an ethnographic work developed in Portugal. It is concluded that the sporting virtue can be sustained as a constitutive reflexive dimension of the «habitus» that surrounds this practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Cognitio - Revista de Filosofia is the property of Cognitio - Revista de Filosofia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objetivo: A proposta deste artigo é apresentar uma apreciação crítica da noção de justiça encapsulada na abordagem de caráter científico-social dominante da justiça organizacional (JO). O argumento que pretendemos endereçar aqui é: o distanciamento de noções prescritivas de justiça, recorrente na abordagem dominante da JO, reduz o ideal de justiça a um meio à disposição das organizações na busca de seus próprios interesses. Originalidade/valor: A possibilidade de desencadear na academia brasileira de administração uma discussão crítica sobre o instrumentalismo e o gerencialismo presentes na produção de conhecimento no campo da JO. Este trabalho contribui para uma reflexão sobre o ideal de justiça nas organizações. Design/metodologia/abordagem: Este é um texto teórico, cuja reflexão se assenta na consulta e na interpretação articulada de material bibliográfico relacionado à concepção hegemônica da JO, obtido por meio de revisão de literatura. Resultados: Um levantamento na literatura de JO revela uma postura de desprendimento assumida pela abordagem dominante em relação às concepções normativas de justiça. Por conta disso, a noção de justiça assumiu um caráter descritivo, subjetivo, funcionalista e positivista. Como categoria analítico-empírica, a justiça é concebida e compreendida por sua função instrumental-gerencialista dentro da estrutura organizacional. Como consequência, os estudos de justiça nas organizações têm sido acusados de converter o ideal de justiça em um recurso servil à prerrogativa da estratégia e do desempenho organizacional. De fato, esse distanciamento anulou e desperdiçou o valor do significado normativo desse ideal. / Purpose: This article outlines a critical assessment of the notion of justice according to the social-scientific dominant approach to organizational justice (OJ). We argue that the detachment from prescriptive notions of justice, advocated by the dominant approach to OJ, shrinks the ideal of justice to a means at the disposal of organizations in pursuit of their interests. Originality/value: To trigger a critical discussion within the Brazilian academy of business about the inherent instrumental and managerial matters in the production of knowledge in the field of OJ. This work contributes to an ideal reflection on OJ. Design/methodology/approach: This is a theoretical essay based on the articulated consult and interpretation of bibliographic materials regarding the hegemonic concept of OJ obtained through a literature review. Findings: A survey in the OJ literature reveals that the proponents of such a dominant scientific-descriptive approach to justice in the workplace take a dissociation stance from normative notions of justice. In doing so, they favor a descriptive, subjective, functionalist, and positivist understanding of justice. Justice is deflated from its moral value to become an analytical-empirical category, understood as its instrumental-managerial function within the organizational structure. Mainstream OJ studies have nullified the normative ideal of justice by turning it into a resource servile to strategy and organizational performance.

This article examines the spiritual doctrine of Richard of Saint Victor. The first part narrates his life, lists his works and indicates his sources, while the second part presents a summary of his spirituality. This consists of an ascending path: commencing with the exercise of virtues, rising through contemplation to reach the height of love. Saint Victor's Trinitarian doctrine is then presented as an example of contemplation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on Portuguese-speaking public the translation of this important classic of philosophical literature and process of revival of virtue ethics in the 20th century and in the strengthening of the tradition that check the supposed categoricity of moral judgments. It mentions type of psychological hedonism accepted by Kant in the treatment of non-moral actions. It also mentions normative judgment without committing ourselves to a metaphysical explanation.

The main objective of this work is to think about the imperial policy proposed by Seneca having as horizon the relationship of complementarity established by two texts of the author: De Clementia and De Ira. In these texts, as we intend to demonstrate, there is a clear concern to ensure ethical principles capable of justifying virtuous behavior, both for those who want to achieve the good life and for those who want to establish themselves as a just ruler - princeps. In both texts, as we will see, there is a succession of political examples that are exalted in an attempt to advise the ruler, whether thinking about Claudius, with De Ira, or Nero, in the case of De Clementia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the concepts of modernity of the public space, of liberal exile and Hispanic American experience, the present article intends to examine Cipriano Barata's and Frei Caneca's transcripts in Correio do Rio de Janeiro, in 1823, while its editor João Soares Lisboa was in prison for being accused of "colluding with Republicans". These editions discussed civic virtues, the Emperor's morality, and the idealization of what Soares Lisboa called a "Monarchical-Democratic" government and disseminated, in the Court, the ruling center of the Empire, a project for Brazil that fought the Upper House and defended provincial autonomy in a federal arrangement, with broad citizen participation in government, formation of militias and restriction of the monarch's powers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I consider some issues concerning Hume’s epistemology of testimony. I’ll particularly focus on the accusation of reductivism and individualism placed by scholars against Hume’s view on Testimonial evidence based on the 10th section of his Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. I will first explain the arguments against Hume position, and address some replies in the literature in order to offer an alternative interpretation concerning the way such a defense should go. My strategy is closely connected with Hume’s notion of virtue and the role it plays in his epistemology, mostly as it is presented in his Treatise of Human Nature. I’ll finally address the problem concerning how the aforementioned section of the Enquiry “Of Miracles”, must be properly understood, since several misunderstanding of Hume’s epistemology of testimony emerge partially from the particular character and aim of that section.

This article surveys the takeover of Roman Hunt Sarcophagi by Christians in Late Antiquity, with a special focus on the monument for Bera in San Sebastiano ad Catacumbas . It is typically argued that their selection of these monuments was motivated by the same “worldly” concerns as their pagan neighbours. This assumption will be challenged here by exploring the potential for resemanticization in a new Christian context, and – in the case of Bera in particular – the complex intersections of gender, virtue and religion in this period.

In this article, we will present some epistemic aspects of an approach that we will conveniently call - and not from a rigorous historical pretension - "Aristotelian", such as that of Alasdair MacIntyre, and epistemic aspects of an approach that we will also conveniently call "Kantian", such as that of Onora O'Neill. Our choice in comparing these two specific approaches and their respective strong points is justified because their attention to analysis of deliberation and action seem to deal successfully with the problem of the relevant descriptions. Our hypothesis is that the presentation of these different perspectives, in terms of practical rationality for the formulation of poverty mitigation policies, would allow us to verify that the Aristotelian approach is contextually efficient, while the Kantian approach is universally demanding. However, if we take into account that a certain international political and economic conjuncture makes poverty mitigation difficult, the addressing of this problem would need to occur in a globally efficient and universally demanding manner. In this sense a Kantian theory of obligation seems to provide epistemic requirements necessary for the formulation of efficient policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the three hierarchically different levels that Leonardo Polo distinguishes in man, corporeal nature, immaterial essence (intelligence, will and personality) and the act of being personal, the poverty can affect one or another layer; and its degreeof severity is different according to how it affects one or another. Individualism, egalitarianism, massification, subjectivism and avarice are causes of it. They are causes of detachment: to achieve virtue, to grow intimately, to favor others and to be destined to God.

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Copyright of Revista Sul-Americana de Engenharia Estrutural is the property of Revista Sul-Americana de Engenharia Estrutural and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Protagoras and Aristotle’s conceptions of virtue are without doubt different. The former conceives it as the exercise of certain moral qualities that are indispensable to the attainment or maintenance of what is useful to oneself and to those who dedicate themselves to the affairs of the city. The latter conceives it as a strong and immutable state of character, which is the condition for the realization of the individual’s and of the city’s Eudaimonia. It would seem, however, that Protagoras and Aristotle converge on this point: the subsistence of a city does not depend upon a ruler who holds the science of ruling well with which he rules, but rather on well educated and excellent rulers and citizens, which is the condition for good political exercise. My aim here is to indicate the affinity between the political conceptions of Protagoras and Aristotle concerning the end of civic education as a guarantee of justice in the city.

Schopenhauer’s theory of religion is mainly discussed in his ethics. Therefore, conventional studies often argue that Schopenhauer made an attempt to make a rational justification of religion through the process of recognising the reason for religion’s existence in its ethical values. However, his theory of religion contains other aspects which cannot be discussed soley in terms of the above view, for he not only observed subtle differences between religion and ethics but even considered that religion could go against ethics at times. For this reason, we cannot simply say that Schopenhauer used ethics as a means to make a rational justification of religion. Rather, he viewed ethics as a standard for criticising religions, though he did not deny religion. He neither affirmed nor denied religion. Based on his ethics, he simply engaged in a philosophical analysis of a human activity called religion as he considered such an approach to be the appropriate one for a philosopher. On that account, what is important here is where in religion Schopenhauer saw the conditions for ethical values. From that point of view, this paper reinterprets his thought through descriptions in his major work, The World as Will and Representation, with an intention to offer a new reading of Schopenhauer’s theory of religion.

The second conjunct of the Republic’s account of justice—that justice is “not meddling in the work of another”—has been neglected in Plato literature. This paper argues that the conjunct does more work than merely reiterating the content of the first conjunct—that justice is “doing one’s own work.” I argue that Socrates develops the concept at work in this conjunct from its introduction with the Principle of Specialization in Book II to its final deployment in the finished conception of justice in Book IV. Crucial to that concept’s development is the way in which the notion of “another” comes to refer to members of distinct classes or parts, i.e. takes on an inter-part connotation beyond a mere intra-part connotation. The first conjunct—that justice is “doing one’s own work”—does not connote the same divisions, and so the conjuncts should not be understood as equivalent or mutually entailed.

The aim of this article is to compare the way Pascal deals with the relations between skepticism and dogmatism in two of his main works, the Pensées and Entretien avec M. de Sacy, which, although not conflicting, bring about a relevant change of point of view. The Entretien approaches the skepticism/ dogmatism debate directly from the moral angle, so that moral risks (and the corresponding passions of pride and laziness) for readers will be the fundamental criterion for evaluating the two philosophies. It is also from the moral point of view that Epiteto and Montaigne, representatives of skepticism and dogmatismo, will be considered irreconcilable, since their reciprocal annihilation of vices and virtues precludes the constitution of a perfect moral. In the Pensées, the assumed point of view is that of the theory of knowledge, even though the clash between the two schools ends in the same moral impasse of the Entretien. The most important difference, however, is that the Pensées bring this clash into human nature. Both works agree to point to the Christian religion as a source of explanation for the paradoxes of the human condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The economy of "grace" in the "Old Regime" constituted a mechanism for political regulation and social ascension, as well as a powerful device for the exercise of royal power. Its foundations were mainly rooted in morals and ethics, in law and tradition, in the feelings of friendship and love, in the Christians virtues of prodigality and gratitude. This extraordinary potestas of the prince was thus distinguished from the ordinary potestas. This text addresses the bureaucratic, administrative and tax aspects to emphasize its political and financial dimension that induces substantive effects in the graceful assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This text intends to point out aspects of the Aristotelian moral agency, which presupposes that there is something, the character, which supports the existence of strong lines from the point of view of behavior, morals, of our moral constitution, and which ends up defining the way in which we act, and therefore operating as something that really defines us. This notion of character is the majority among Aristotle's commentators, although different interpretations can be defended about the scope of this character disposition in Aristotle. This conception has spread over time, but it has been questioned - at least its more traditional reading - by recent studies on social psychology, which attenuates or rejects the idea of a character that supports our moral agency, stating that this is not the case, but the situations that determine the action. From this perspective, we especially have Nisbet, Ross, Doris and Harman, who, based on the results concerning experimental social psychology, even claim that there would not be what we understand by character, which would imply a serious problem for the well-known ethics of virtues, as this requires, in most of its formulations, the idea of an absolutely robust character (Harman), which would allow us to predict the behavior of an agent in a given circumstance (Doris). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work seeks to stimulate the exercise of a virtue without which man will not fully possess any other good habit: the virtue of sagacity. As a first and indispensable step, the true meaning of this virtue is explained. Since it holds a close relation with the virtue of prudence, the study commences by treating of the characteristics of the prudent man, thus deepening an understanding of the virtue of sagacity. Prudence is a virtue that brings us to decide and act correctly. Sagacity, in turn, holds the same qualities as prudence, but is practiced when facing an occasion in which agility in decision and action is required. The outcome of this investigation seeks to highlight the perfection of this virtue, while at the same time examining the opposite vices, especially the vice of deviousness. The work is based on the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas, in particular those contained in the Summa Theologiae. In consonance with the Thomist line of thought, other authors with knowledge of the topic were included in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For Alasdair MacIntyre, the solution for an ethical crisis that our today's society have been passing through started when ethic of virtues was abandoned. MacIntyre show us a conception return from an ethics that presume the practice of virtues acts, Aristotle's middle term, for someone be a better person. In this research we will see ethic of virtues comprehension from Alasdair MacIntyre where the solution for the contemporary ethical crisis proposed by the philosopher have been shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to Alexis de Tocqueville, in the state of equality of conditions liberty is under serious threat. The passion for equality, which is the first and most intense passion of a democratic people, may prompt them to exchange liberty for despotism, in so far as they are willing to surrender themselves entirely to the search of material goods and self-interest, and to resign their power of judgment for the sake of the opinion of the majority, which is the real source of authority in such a social state. Taking this fragile balance between liberty and equality into account, this paper aims the consideration of American customs which allows Tocqueville to postulate a social theory (not a description of this society), the doctrine of interest properly understood, which may link analytically virtue and interest and instruct democratic societies.

this paper explores the stoic position that practical wisdom is a kind of skill applied to our life as a whole. First we argue that the affinity between the virtues and the technai was a well-established tendency in the ancient world, but the stoics radicalize this position. We discuss which conceptual innovations were necessary to implement such project, and we show how this is related to the thesis that virtue is sufficient to happiness. We conclude by remarking that the techné toû bíou is a way to defend a conception of the good life in which the central component is freedom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plotinus’ philosophical project includes an important Socratic element. Plotinus is namely interested in both self-knowledge and care of soul and self. In this study I examine how through his interpretation of three passages from Plato (Timaeus 35 a, Phaedrus 246 band Theatetus 176 a-b), Plotinus develops an account of the role of care in his ethics. Care in Plotinus’ ethical thought takes three forms. First of all, care is involved in maintaining the unity of the embodied self. Secondly, situated in a providential universe, our souls – as sisters to the world soul - take part in the providential order by caring for ‘lower’ realities. Finally, Plotinus develops an ethics of going beyond virtue, a process which involves care for the higher, potentially divine, self.

The contemporary 'virtue theory' stresses the need to return to the moral formation of the individual, following the ethical model made available by Aristotle. According to MacIntyre, an important representative of this theory, Stoicism favored the development of modern and contemporary ethics, by highlighting notions such as will, consent, and natural or divine law. As a result, the development of the moral agent itself has been neglected. In the twelfth century, Abelard introduces hybrid ethics, which maintains both the Aristotelian theory of virtue and elements of Stoic morality. In the present study, we consider MacIntyre's criticism of Abelard ethics, which is estimated to be at the origin of modern and contemporary moral conceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I would like to presente the hierarchy of goods, supported by Aristotle in his ethical treaties and in Politics, as the solution to the impasse between two conceptions of virtue that come into open conflict in some of the main Platonic dialogues: virtue as sovereignity and self-sufficiency of the wise, such as that which opposes the insufficiency of addiction, and virtue as capacity ans achievement, as that which opposes to incapacity and to debility. I intend to show that Aristotle "saves" the aristocratic conception of virtue in the same extent that he defends pratical truth Against logical rigorismo, without, however, failing to incorporate the Platonic objection to an instrumental conception of virtue that sees it as a means for obtaining wealth and power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the concept of good through an overview of Xenophon's Memorabilia. It begins with the dialogue between Socrates and Aristippus (3.8), in which the philosopher links the good with utility, indicating the recurrence of this conception in the dialogue with Euthydemus (4.6). It shows how the conception of good as useful is expanded to the divine realm, identifying the passages in which the gods appear as benefactors of humanity. Then, it deals, in contrast, with the human difficulty of accessing good, either by not recognizing it, or by the need for preliminary practice of virtue, understood as enkrateia, i.e., restraint of pleasures. In this context, the relevance of self-knowledge as the knowledge of one's own power (δύναμις) stands out. Finally, the article highlights the figure of Socrates as a benefactor, describing the way Xenophon portrays him as a guide and a paradigm for those who wanted to learn from him. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]