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In the context of an ever growing interest upon environmental protection issue, the study comprises an analyze of the organization and the effectiveness of the public sanitation services both at a union and a national level, starting from the premises of the two dedicated principles: the priority of selective waste collection and the principle „Pay-as-you-throw“, a practical application of a more general „the polluter pays“ principle. Both of these are going to be analyzed from a double perspective: the EU Law (Directive 2008/98/EC) and EU recommendations, on one side, the national law (Law no. 51/2006 of community services of public utilities, GEO no. 92/2021 regarding the waste regime, Law no. 101/2006 of the public sanitation services, Framework Regulation of the public sanitation services etc.), on the other. As this study will show, EU and national law are abundant in regulations determining and detailing these two principles: thus, the theory seems to be clear. These principles are no longer that clear when it comes to their concrete application, due to the lack of detailed rules. The selective waste collection remains, in fact, a simple wish, mostly because the users of the public sanitation service have not received previous proper instruction in this regard, as there are no concrete rules related to how to classify a waste into one of the paper/plastic and metal/glass/biodegradable categories. But also „The polluter pays“ principle is rather an illusion than a reality; even though national laws force its implementation, there are plenty of hurdles in applying it: the inadequate use of the available instruments that determines the waste produced by each individual, or to the difficulties related to condominiums. The article focuses on the analysis of all of these acute issues, taking into account two factual examples -- waste management in the Metropolitan Area of Cluj and Bucharest, -- proposing solutions attempting to ease the implementation of these two key principles concerning public sanitation services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 17th century, numerous wars were fought on the territory of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania. Some were wars against foreign attacks; others were civil wars between different pretenders to the throne. Some conflicts were short-lived, while others dragged on for several years. This study presents the life of women during military confrontations. Women's destinies are traced at different stages of wars, from the beginning of hostilities to the establishment of peace. Representatives of different social categories mentioned in historical sources, without exception, came into the field of attention: from ruling strata ladies to commoners, from respectable wives, daughters and widows to women of easy virtue. The documents show that women and children who did not participate in hostilities were just as vulnerable as the men who fought. Women were abused, captured or killed by foreign soldiers. In internecine wars, the wives of opponents, being captured, became victims of revenge on their husbands or were used to blackmail them. Therefore, in the conditions of the outbreak of war, the first concern of men was to protect their families. The study shows that most of the women who left their towns to move to safe places belonged to the nobility. Common women mostly stayed at home and took care of their household. There were cases when the authorities forbade women to leave the besieged towns, as, for example, in Cluj in 1611 and 1704. Women had to be involved in the defense, and violation of the orders of the authorities was severely punished. Restoring peace brought other hardships for women. Many tried to free themselves from slavery. Others had to raise money to ransom captive husbands or sons. Many women became widows, forced to provide for their lives and the lives of their children, pay off debts left by their husbands, and fight for their rights, which were often vio- lated by family and society. Chronicles show that wars could not interfere with the normal course of life of civilians. Despite the need and un- certainty, people married and baptized children. Wars have brought much suffering to women from all walks of life. Although it was rooted in the mentality of the time that abuses against women were punished by the God, this did not stop many men from taking advantage of their vulnerability, especially in wartime. Women fell into slavery, died either by the sword, or from famine and disease that accompanied wars. Countless women in the 17th century became widows and had to fight for their own survival and the survival of their children in a hostile world torn apart by economic crises. The paper also examines the attitude of men of the 17th century towards the actions of women during military conflicts. Numerous documents and testaments reflect both negative opinions and manifestations of respect and gratitude of men in families and society to women for the trials they have endured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the diplomatic sources written in urban contexts, account books represent one of the richest and most diverse sources of information concerning the governance and everyday life of any medieval town. This situation is also fully valid for the small Transylvanian corner of Eastern Central Europe, where a handful of urban settlements of German foundation had developed and flourished in the Late Middle Ages. Through a few historical records of this nature, dating from the last years of the 15th century, the town of Cluj - at this point jointly administrated by its Hungarian and German communities - resembles in their employment with the predominantly Saxon towns of Sibiu, Bistrița, Brașov and Sighișoara. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to typologically frame the preserved fragments of the medieval accounts of Cluj, part of them already put in circulation since the end of the 19th century, while another, more modest in scope, was completely unpublished so far, as well as to give all these sources a new and updated critical edition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We aimed to study the Hebrew community contribution to sports development in Cluj between the two World Wars, since at that time the city had a large population of jews, who was instrumental in setting up structures recognized sports in their management and obtain results that are part of the treasure athlete of this city. In its introduction, the paper refers to the context in which they first appeared in Europe Hebrew sports organizations and Hebrew community participation in the sporting life of the early twentieth century. Further, the paper refers to changes in the status of Jews in Romania after 1st World War and how they influenced the work of the ethnic Hebrew sports movement in Cluj. Reference is made to the establishment and activity of the Haggibor Sports Club who featured jewish athletes representative for that period, their contribution to the development of sports such as football, table tennis, swimming, gymnastics etc among women. Occupies an important place in the work of the Jews in Cluj sports activity under antisemitic policies and discriminatory measures taken against the Hebrew community in the second half of the `30 and after Hebrew enforcement the Hungarian government as a result of annexation of Northern Transylvania, which, initially led to restriction of rights to participate in sport official that then lead to the dissolution of jewish clubs and sports circles, the destruction of a valuable tradition that was part of the common history of Cluj. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is the result of a research that investigates how people with visual impairments and without disabilities perceive the accessibility of higher education. The first chapter introduces the reader to the main topic of this research. The next chapter includes the research approach and results. The research investigate two groups of students, with visual impairments and without disabilities. The starting point was the premise that students with visual impairments do not experience major difficulties in terms of attitude towards them, as well as information and physical access in Cluj Universities. The research tools are two interview guides and a Likert questionnaire that includes ordinal level questions. I used three groups of subjects: 30 students with visual impairments, 30 students without disabilities and also one hundred students without disabilities from which are identified some attitudinal differences. Generally, there aren't major difficulties identified in the accessibility of the higher education and positive attitudes marks the behavior toward people with visual impairments. With few exceptions, students with visual impairments do not face big problems and atitudinal barriers in their university access. The nature of this fenomenological research has it epistemiological limits requiring a more in-depth and extended analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The present study proposes a new insight into the general education in the Hungarianlanguage in Communist Romania, known through the historiography as being a controversial issue. While the officials of the Communist regime stated that the educational rights of minorities were fully respected, the leaders of the Hungarian community argued that there was a certain educational discrimination. In this respect, the city of Cluj, as a symbolic place and the locus of ethnical identification for Transylvanian Hungarians - achieved through the historical becoming of this settlement -, is therefore an optimal choice to enriching our understanding about education in Hungarian as a mother tongue. After the fall of the Communist dictatorship, due to the lack of data related to the Hungarian language schooling during Communism, most of the surveys relied on scattered evidences and resulted in partial school monographs. The present study, based on extended research carried out at the Romanian National Archives, aims to offer a larger perspective on describing and understanding these past realities. It is also focused on "reading" the schooling evidences of the historical period (schools and pupils enrolled) within the political, socio-economical, demographical, institutional context and especially trough the local implementation of educational policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is a description of the beginnings of the sports medicine in Cluj, enhanced by Iuliu Haţieganu, the founder of the medical school in this city. In chronological order, this paper presents an update of the development of sport medicine in our university. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]