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The study was performed on a contagious behavior model based on drinking, behavior in rats. In the presence of familiar drink-motivated conspecific showing drinking behavior (rat-demonstrator), drink-unmotivated rat-viewer begins to demonstrate behavioral signs ofdrinking motivation that is the signs of behavioral contagion. In this paper; the changes in the ethogram of rats-viewers with behavioral contagion were studied by analyzing atransition probabilities matrix. Those animals showed a decrease in the frequency of aggression and defensive behavior patterns simultaneously with an increase in the frequency of exploratory activity, drinking and exploratory approaches to bottles as compared with the ethogram of rats-viewers with no signs of behavioral contagion when tested in the presence of familiar drink-unmotivated con specific-demonstrator.

The presented in the article the analysis of water schedule in student-athletes showed a low level of water consumption culture and the irrationality of the actual water schedule. According to the results of the survey revealed that 86.7% of boys-athletes and 67.2% of girls athletes were revealed to fail to keep a certain water schedule; 98.3% student-athletes are in a state of dehydration of the body. There are established correlations between the presence of dehydration of the body and symptoms such as fatigue and decreased performance (correlation coefficient 0.594, p = 0.01), the appearance of dryness in the morning on an empty stomach (correlation coefficient 0.512, p = 0.01).

In work, the attempt of contagious behavior modeling on the basis of rat drinking behavior was made. Rats' behavior was observed in home cage with two bottles. The rat without drinking motivation (viewer) was placed in the cage for adaptation. The rat-demonstrator was placed into the same cage 3 minutes later. If the viewer was tested with drink-motivated demonstrator, it had less latency of approach to bottles, higher frequency of approaches and increased drinking behavior time than the rat tested with unmotivated demonstrator or the rat tested without demonstrator. The intragastric infusion of coffee increased frequency of approaches to demonstrated bottle. Phenazepam intragastric injection decreased frequency of approaches and drinking behavior time at demonstrated bottle. The results suggest that drugs may affect rat contagious behavior based on drinking behavior.

A review. Modern concepts of the physiological role of basic active component of renin-angiotensin system angiotensin II and its 3-8 fragment angiotensin IV are stated. The basic ways of formation and further degradation of angiotensin II and IV in a body are described. General characteristic of physiological activity and possible mechanisms of action of angiotensin II and IV are presented. Specifically, the role of angiotensin II and IV in regulation of defensive and drinking behaviors of animals is considered.

We compared activity of synthetic complexes of angiotensin II and functionally different proteins (transport protein, serum albumin and neurospecific Ca2+-binding protein S100b) as analogues of endogenous protein-peptide complexes. Physiological activity of angiotensin II was specifically modified by these proteins. It was hypothesized that the complex of angiotensin II and S100b is primarily involved in the regulation of hemodynamics, whereas the complex of angiotensin II and bovine serum albumin plays a role in the formation and realization of drinking behavior.

Systemic administration of angiotensin II after carotid glomectomy produced a less pronounced dipsogenic effects (consumption of water and NaCl solution) compared to sham-operated control animals. Injection of angiotensin II into the lateral cerebral ventricles of the same glomectomized rats increased water and NaCl consumption to a level surpassing that of sham-operated animals. The number of drinking acts and comfortable grooming acts decreased in glomectomized animals after systemic administration of angiotensin II, but increased after its intracerebral injection compared to the control. The results confirm the hypothesis that carotid chemoreceptors, as the peripheral component of the renin-angiotensin system, participate in the mechanisms of angiotensin-induced thirst, "salt appetite", and associated behavioral forms (comfortable grooming) synergically with the central cerebral receptors.

Central mechanisms of angiotensin involvement in initiation and realization of operant forms of drinking behavior were investigated. It was suggested that intracerebroventricular microinjection of angiotensin-II and angiotensin-IIl specifically affected the learned forms of drinking behavior. The experiments demonstrated that [des-Asp1]-angiotensin-I produced only the natural forms of drinking behavior. Angiotensins modulated specific forms of thirst-associated behavior such as exploring, grooming, and ingestive behavior. Injections of AT1 receptor antagonist losartan were associated with acute water intake decrease and sharp operant behavior inactivation.

The comparative analysis of learned and natural drinking behavior under native angiotensin-I (A-I), angiotensin-II (A-II) and its protein-peptides complexes (PPC) administration in rats, was performed. Various effects of these substances on drinking behavior were observed. PPC of A-I became a dipsogenic agent as compared with the native one. Moreover, PPC of A-II facilitated selectively learned and not natural forms of drinking behavior. It's suggested that PPC of angiotensins play a specific role in endogenous mechanisms of thirst. An important function of this complexes due to their conformational properties and participation in realization of basic needs, is discussed.

The 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT was shown to diminish the water and 1.8% NaCl solution consumption, whereas its antagonist pMPPI--to enhance the water intake in rats. Another agonist: CGS-12066A enhanced water intake or exerted no effect on drinking behaviour and diminished salt intake. Other substances under study exerted various effects. The data obtained suggest that the 5-HT receptors are involved in regulation of water and salt intake, even though the mechanisms of the effects are different. Apparently 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors play an activating role in regulation of water intake, whereas 5-HT1A, 5-HT2C and 5-HT3 receptors act as inhibitory ones. Only three of the receptors under study seem to regulate salt intake by inhibiting the salt appetite.

Protein-peptide complexes involved in learned and natural drinking behavioral patterns were comparatively analyzed in rats. Active immunization with protein-conjugated angiotensin II and beta-endorphin produces some behavioral responses. It is suggested that protein complexes of these peptides play a specific informational role in the systemic organization of learned behavior. The paper discusses whether these complexes perform an important function due to their conformational properties and their participation in the hierarchical organization of integrative processes in the nervous system.

The effects of conjugated angiotensin II and beta-endorphin on the rat drinking behavior that was natural and formed due to preliminary learning were comparatively analyzed. Some behavioral responses were also studied after active immunization with the above agents. It is suggested that the conjugated forms of the regulatory peptides play a specific informational role in the systemic organization of goal-oriented behavior. These substances due to their conformational properties and involvement in the hierarchic organization of integrative processes in the nervous system are shown to be of great value.

Saitarin (an extract from the horns of antelope Saiga) depresses complex instrumental drinking behavior of rats and induced specific changes in the structure of goal-directed behavioral acts. Such changes are to a certain extent suppressed by naloxone. The obtained evidence suggest that the effects of saitarin are caused by its predominant influence on the processes of reinforcement in the course of realization by animals of the learned behavioral acts.

The system architectonics of "systemoquanta" of rat drinking behavior was objectively evaluated in the dynamic process of its formation by means of studying intermediate and final results. The developed experimental equipment made it possible to determine characteristic features of formation and realization of drinking "systemoquanta" and the dynamics of their internal structure. Various "strategies" of system organization of identical behavior were revealed in rats of different groups. The revealed peculiarities of the internal structure of "systemoquanta" in rats of different groups are probably determined by the innate individual differences in the processes of prediction and estimation of intermediate and final results in the framework of strategic "systemoquantum" of drinking behavior.

Vagotomized rats given a choice between water and an unfamiliar 0.2% saccharin solution ingest comparable amounts of both fluids over 2.5 weeks of testing. Saccharin intake in sham-operated rats grows steadily (attenuation of taste neophobia), with water intake being unchanged. After the pairing of water intake with rotation saccharin intake in vagotomized rats grows and in sham-operated animals decreases significantly, whereas water intake in the latter increases sharply. Thus, the rats with retained vagal innervation exhibit aversion to saccharin, substance with an unfamiliar taste, but not to water paired with a discomfort. After two-week elimination of neophobia to saccharin, the pairing of water intake with rotation brings into the acquisition of aversion to water in the first days of choice testing in sham-operated rats; similar aversion in vagotomized rats appears with retardation (on the 4th to 6th day).

Taste sensitivity to a bitter substance, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) was studied in rat strains selected for the threshold of excitability of the nervous system. In the period of 17 days the drinking behaviour of the rats was estimated after giving them a series of PTC solutions with increasing concentrations and water as a control. The interstrain differences were found in the mean level of this index and its dynamics during the experimental period. Rats of the strain with high excitability showed the rhythmical changes of taste sensitivity to PTC related to the phases of moon rhythm. The obtained evidence points to relation between the sign under study and individual characteristics of the nervous system, namely, its excitability, and suggests the differences in activity of the second messenger system (Ca++, c-AMP and others) in the studied rat strains.

A new approach to estimation and prediction of morphine and cocaine effects was proposed based on the analysis of animal behaviour directed to a satisfaction of one of the main biological needs, thirst. Both morphine and cocaine did not essentially effect the level of the basic biological (drinking) motivation by the index of the general volume of liquid consumption. Both drugs produced opposite effects on the duration of recognition/manipulation and drinking components of the structure of water-reinforced instrumental act. The proposed methodology is of diagnostic and prognostic value in respect of the complex behavioural effects of the drugs and presumably some other active factors.

After isolation of rat puppies from mother at the age of 17, 21, 26, 31 or 36 days, studies have been made within 3 days on water consumption and utilization of a 0.2% solution of saccharin. The presence or absence of neophobia were indicated by relative consumption of saccharin solution in percentage to total volume of drinking. It was shown that at the age of 17-19 days neophobia is absent, at 21-23 days it becomes evident, at 26-28 days it is present only in females, at 31-33 days it is absent in animals of both sexes (saccharin consumption at this age is maximal), at 36-38 days significant neophobia was registered both in females and males. Fluctuations in neophobia are discussed in relation to weanling.

In the paper was described the influence of angiotensin-2, captopril, bestatin, and angiotensin-2-(3-7) fragment on drinking, feeding and alcohol directed behaviour. It was found that dipsogenic doses of angiotensin-2 could inhibit food and alcohol intake mostly by a suppression of food and alcohol motivations. Specific antagonist of "classical" angiotensin-2 receptors saralasin could not block angiotensin-2 effects. A significant decrease of food and ethanol intake was revealed after intraventricular injections of enzyme blockers captopril and bestatin, which increase endogenic levels of angiotensin-1 and angiotensin-3, and also angiotensin-2-(3-7). So was shown the ability of angiotensins to suppress the dominant food or alcohol motivations by the activation of some other but not the "classical" angiotensin-2 receptors. Was suggested the involvement of angiotensins in the coordination of the different kinds of functional systems to create the optimal conditions for realization of drinking behaviour.

Were studied the peptidergic mechanisms of regulation of the specialized forms of alimentary behaviour, i.e. the "salt" and "carbohydrate appetites", and the control of taste afferentation in the process of sodium chloride and saccharose consumption. Saccharose consumption controlled with participation of cholecystokinin was found to be mediated by an increase of taste afferentation under the influence of this peptide. Specialized sodium chloride consumption is under the control of the peptides litorine and substance P and mediated by a selective intensification of taste afferentation under the influence of these peptides. Active immunization by litorin-albumin and substance P-albumin conjugates was carried out to gain a high level of endogenous antibodies to these peptides. Injections of capsaicin to newborn rats was done for a degeneration of the substance P-containing nerve fibers. The methods used confirmed the specific participation of these peptides in a systemic regulation of salt consumption and activity of the chemoreceptors of the tongue. Were analyzed the main principles of the peptidergic regulation of the specialized forms of alimentary behaviour and the role of chemosensory afferentation in a correction of the process of consumption of the substances.

Following intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of the lowest doses (100 ng) of neuropeptide Y (NPY) the feeding behaviour was suppressed, while higher doses (5 mcg) of NPY enhanced it. Prazosin (9.5 nmol, icv), a selective alpha 1-adrenoceptor antagonist, attenuated the stimulatory effect of 5 mcg NPY on food intake. Yohimbine (15 nmol, icv) and propranolol (5 mg/kg, ip) had no effect on NPY-induced feeding behaviour. Naloxone inhibited NPY-induced feeding behaviour and did not influence on the NPY-induced suppression of food intake. These data give evidence for heterogeneity among the central NPY receptors. The effect of NPY on feeding behaviour may, at least in part, be mediated via alpha 1-adrenoceptors.

A week salt load and partial water deprivation of rats lead to disturbance of conditioned activity: decrease of adequate runs to the feeder with salted food and disinhibition of differentiations. In cases of shift of insipid signal to the feeder with salted food the animal ate alimentary reinforcement of such a degree of salinity which was rejected by the animal at realization of run in response to the salt signal. Against the background of thirst a trans-switching of signal role of the conditioned signals was performed in accordance with the new quality of the alimentary reinforcement (the feeders changed their places). The role is discussed of the external and internal signalization in regulation of gustatory thresholds and participation of the lateral hypothalamus in these mechanisms.

It is shown, that rats, bred in conditions of intraspecies isolation are able to competition for water in the kin group, having usual experience of intraspecies intercourse. At the same level of drinking motivation in conditions of competition for water the intraspecies activity is significantly higher in rats, bred in isolation in comparison with grouped animals. Rats-isolants significantly more often than the grouped animals use extraordinary tactics of intraspecies behaviour, which increase their competitive ability in conditions of limited access to water.

Long-term locomotive regimens of moderate intensity change the spontaneous locomotive activity (SLA). Hypokinesia leads to the SLA reduction whereas additional physical loads cause its increment, changing hypophyseal-adrenal system reactivity, too. Tolerance to hypoxic hypoxia under locomotive hypokinesia tends to lower.

In chronic experiments on rabbits with preliminary alimentary or water deprivation electrical and mechanic activity was studied of the chewer muscle proper and of the esophagus in the process of animals food or water taking. It has been established that in patterns of electrical and mechanic activity of the chewer muscle proper and esophagus specific differences of alimentary and drinking behaviour of animals are reflected. Dominating motivation of different biological properties determines the specific integration of motoneurones of chewing and swallowing centers and peripheral contraction elements of digestive tract in the functional systems of alimentary and drinking behaviour.

Taste receptor organ activity and preference of sodium chloride solution in rats with deficit of substance P (SP) were studied. Total impulse activity of chorda tympani nerve of 7-8 week old rats was recorded under nembutal anesthesia. The taste responses to four solutions (sucrose, quinine sulfate, sodium chloride and citric acid) were decreased in rats injected with capsaicin in comparison with rats injected with vehicle. The rats injected with capsaicin preferred water to sodium chloride (two-bottle technique). On the contrary the rats injected with capsaicin preferred the salt solution. These data together with previous studies show the important role of peptide SP in taste receptor activity and "salt appetite".

Light, electron microscopy and cytospectrophatometry were used to study the level of acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase in the hypothalamus nuclei during different periods of water deprivation in white rats. It was demonstrated that depending upon the time of deprivation, there is a successive triggering of the cholino- adrenoreactive systems in the hypothalamus. However, the main role in the perception of water deprivation in the triggering of the regulatory mechanisms is played by the cholinergic mediator system in the lateral preoptic area, lateral and supraoptical nuclei of the hypothalamus.

Growth rate of male rats exposed to intensive physical exercise and the impact of exercise on the muscle system have been studied. To increase the locomotor activity the animals were kept in higher, as compared to the control, cages with the feeding rack attached to the ceiling. A tendency to an increase in body weight and specifically in gastrocnemius was noted. A reduction in water consumption was shown to slow the growth rate of rats in increased locomotor activity, while in low physical activity water shortage exerted but a negligible effect on the animal growth.

In experiments on cats with chronically implanted electrodes a conditioned stimulus (200 c/s tone) was paired with electrical stimulation of limbic structures, which produces pronounced emotional behaviour: defensive, aggressive, alimentary or drinking reactions. It has been shown that conditioned reactions are not elaborated on the basis of electrical stimulation, which activates alimentary, drinking or aggressive behaviour. Neither is a conditioned reflex formed to the combination of sound and stimulation of the brain structures, which inhibits alimentary behaviour. A distinct conditioned fear reaction sets in as a result of combination of sound and electrical stimulation of brain structures, which evoke defensive behaviour. The data obtained are analyzed in the light of the significance of natural requirements of the organism for the elaboration of conditioned reflexes.

The mechanism of nervous control of licking was studied in the frame work of the electrophysiological analysis of conditioned taste aversion. The licking rhythm is so stable that the rats are unable to slow it down by 20 percent. If the solution which was previously used for establishing the conditioned taste aversion, appears in the drinking spout, the rat stops drinking after one or two licks. Analysis of temporal relationships between afferent and efferent impulse activity of licking shows that the comparison of gustatory signals with memory traces and the corresponding decision occurs within 80 to 120 ms after lick onset. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamic centres through implanted electrodes has shown that the amplitude of evoked responses and the impairment of licking increases, in proportion to the delay between lick onset and stimulus application. Isolated discharges of epileptic foci in the frontal cortex and the hypothalamus cause an omission of one or several licks, without interfering with the activity of the licking generator.

In old rats, the electrolytic lesion of the ventromedial hypothalamus provoked a less body weight gain, less rise in insulin blood content and an approximately similar increase in food intake as compared with young animals. In old animals, the somatotropin plasma level dropped down whereas in young ones it increased. The thyrotropin plasma content fell in animals of both age groups. Plasma corticosterone remained unchanged or slightly decreased. Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism (the levels of sugar total lipids. cholesterol, free fatty acids) changed dissimilarly. The time-course of changes as well as relationship between metabolic shifts and both the duration and degree of hypothalamic obesity were age-dependent. The evidence obtained suggests a substantial alteration in the hypothalamic centers and pathways of their effect realization in old age.

The preference of sucrose, saccharin and salt solutions to water was analyzed during 5 days in rats with bilateral section of the lingual nerve comprising the taste nerve--chorda tympani. In the process of the analysis of daily consumption and choice of solutions, different types of behavioural reactions were found: stable preference and change of preference. The number of rats preferring NaCl was greater among the animals with sectioned lingual nerve than among sham-operated control rats and rats with ligated ducts of submaxillary and sublingual salivary glands. The number of rats with the lingual nerve section preferring sucrose or saccharin solutions to water was equal to that among the sham-operated rats. At the same time the mean volume of sucrose solution taken in daily by rats with sectioned lingual nerve was twice as great as the volume of saccharin, drunk by the same animals. The role of taste in the process of choice and preference of NaCl to sweet solutions is discussed.

Dynamics of the hippocampal theta-activity was studied during performance of a stably elaborated habit with drinking reinforcement. It has been shown that during running and in other forms of behaviour, belonging to the class of voluntary movements, the theta-activity takes place within the band of 7.5--12 c/s; during emotional stress without locomotion its frequency amounts to 6--7.5 c/s, during lapping movements it is equal to 5-6 c/s, during emotionally motivated and behavioral inactivation--to 2.5--5 c/s. In accordance with the data obtained in conditions of spontaneous behaviour, the observed facts allow to consider the wide spectrum of the hippocampal theta-rhythm not as a continuous, one-band, functionally uniform frequency, reflecting the continuum of arousal by its intensity,--but as consisting of discrete frequency bands which are functionally connected with different forms of behavior.

Intraventricular injection of angiotensin-II (100 ng) increased the latency period and decreased the amount of food intake in the hungry rats. Preliminary administration of saralasin (100 ng) blocked the inhibitory effect of angiotensin-II on food consumption. In contrast to the above mentioned intraperitoneal injection of angiotensin-II (10 ng/kg) 10 min before food and water admission results in the tendency to increase the food intake. And the same application of angiotensin-II 60 min before food and water admission increased by 49% of food intake in hungry rats. Saralasin (50 ng/kg) given prior to the angiotensin-II administration blocked the angiotensin-II effects. Moreover a significant decrease in the food intake was found after intraperitoneal injection of saralasin only. No significant changes in the drinking behavior in response to the intraventricular and intraperitoneal drugs administration were registered.

The influence of unilateral section of the septo-hippocampal pathway on the electrical activity of the dorsal hippocampus of both hemispheres was studied in conditions of elaborated behaviour. The analysis of EEG data of the fields CA1 and CA3 before the section revealed an interconnection of the theta-rhythm and behaviour. Ablation of the septal input caused in the ipsilateral hippocampus a sharp decrease in the activity amplitude and in the number of theta-waves as well as an increase in beta-frequencies and an impairment of interconnection between the frequency bands of the theta-rhythm and the forms of behavioural act. Meanwhile, in the contralateral hippocampus, despite a certain decrease in the activity amplitude and an increase in the number of rapid oscillations, no sharp decrease in theta-waves was visible and the correlation of the theta-rhythm with the behaviour forms was clearly pronounced.

In rats, effects of hormonal disbalance of the pituitary-adrenal axis on formation, extinction and subsequent restoration of conditioned drinking response were studied. The hypophysectomia accelerated learning of this response whereas administration of ACTH retarded its extinction. In 45 days after extinction, a significant deficit of the habit retrieval was observed in hypophysectomized rats. The time of the conditioned response actualization increased in animals treated with ACTH or dexamethasone. The findings are discussed in the light of the hypothesis suggesting that hormonal balance of pituitary-adrenal system is important for the processes of consolidation and for retention of conditioned responses.

A study was made of the RNA biosynthesis intensity in the brain cortex depending on the rate of the learning of the conditioned active avoidance and food reinforcement alteration responses in ethanol or water preferring rats placed in a complex maze. The level of the brain RNA biosynthesis in ethanol preferring rats was lower as compared with that in rats preferring water. In ethanol preferring rats, the rate of the learning of the conditioned active avoidance response was lower, whereas that of the learning of the alternation response was greater than in water preferring rats. The data are discussed in accordance with the concepts that disorders in the interaction of transmitter and genetic structures of brain cells form the basis of the behavior of ethanol preferring animals.

Marked alterations in feeding and defense behaviour and motor activity partly resembling the effects of exogenous beta-endorphin administration were demonstrated in the experiments on rats. These alterations were observed after immunization with beta-endorphin--bovine serum albumin conjugate (two subcutaneous injections at a 7-day interval at a dose of 75 micrograms, 1 mole BSA/6 moles beta-endorphin mixed with complete Freund's adjuvant). A decrease in beta-endorphin content in some brain structures was noted. Unlike control animals, the immunized rats revealed within 3-4 weeks an increase in food intake without any rise in body weight and practically no response to handling.