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Purpose. Assess the intangible ecosystem services of forests in the Ternopil region. Methods. Descriptive, statistical, assess and geoenvironmental analysis. Results. The article assess intangible ecosystem services forests of the Ternopil region: recreational capacity, oxygen production, carbon dioxide assimilation, greenhouse gas absorption. The region is dominated by operational forests, the average age of forests is 62 years. The main forest-forming species are oak, beech, hornbeam and ash. Ecologically permissible recreational capacity of forests of the Ternopil region is 824 400 people for all lands of the forest fund and 112 500 people for recreational-health forests. It is established that the average daily volume of oxygen production by forests of the region is 36,6 thousand tons, the volume of carbon dioxide assimilation – 45,8 thousand tons. Forests of Ternopil region, during the year, absorb 875 700 tons of greenhouse gases. The development of integrated use of forest resources and the expansion of the use of intangible forest resources remain priority areas for the forestry in the region. Conclusions. This area of research is promising and relevant, especially in the context of current global and regional climate change. Such studies should be detailed at the level of individual state forestry enterprises, administrative districts and territorial communities. The results of such research contribute to the monetization of forest ecosystem services and the rational management of forest ecosystems on the basis of sustainable development.

The article presents the experience of using GIS technologies to prepare spatial predictors for their further use in modeling and mapping the dynamics of forest ecosystem functions. The study was conducted on the territory of the Dankovsky district forestry, which is located in the south of the Moscow region. GIS analysis of spatial data containing information about the relief and the hydrographic network of the study area was performed. As a result, morphometric values describing the surface runoff and altitude zonality of the study area have been created. The article describes GIS tools that can be used to create thematic geospatial products: slope exposure, steepness and curvature; direction, distance and length of the flow line, total flow; average altitude above sea level and distance to the river. In addition, the boundaries of river catchment basins have been identified by using GIS analysis, within which it is also planned to model climate-regulating forest functions associated with the carbon cycle.

The article describes the results of investigations of the sub-recent assemblages of silica phytoliths in top soils of various modern plant communities of the Middle Volga region in Tatarstan, Samarskaya and Ulyanovskaya oblasts conducted in 2017–2020. Counts of various phytolith morphotypes from 40 samples suggest a relatively low level of vegetation community specificity as revealed by multivariate statistical analyses. Nevertheless, coniferous and mixed forests can be distinguished based on the presence of a suite of conifer phytoliths, while steppes can be identified based on high proportion of rondels. Deciduous forests of the region can be detected based on high proportion of straight elongates and acutous bulbosus (trichome) type. Some matchings are made to 10 archaeological samples from various strata and ages across the region. Such samples reveal high proportion of cultured grass phytoliths and are most similar to steppes or agricultural assemblages in the modern dataset.

On the example of the Volga basin, based on the materials of large-scale landscape surveys, predictive empirical-statistical modeling of the carbon balance of boreal and nemoral forest biomes was carried out. One of the types of predictive ecological models is presented – within the framework of experimental landscape ecology. Methods for calculating and mapping the volumes of absorption/emission of greenhouse gases by forests under predicted climate changes are discussed. Based on global climate models, predictive estimates of the components of the carbon balance of forest ecosystems as integral formations and their influence on the carbon exchange of the earth’s surface with the atmosphere are given. For two climatic forecast scenarios: moderate and extreme, quantitative indicators of adsorption and emission of СО2 in various local and zonal-regional conditions of the East European subcontinent are given. It has been established that boreal forest ecosystems predominantly carry out cumulative regulation of the carbon cycle, which mitigates warming, while nemoral forests regulate emission regulation. The general softening effect of the forest cover of the Volga basin on climatic changes with the strengthening of the hydrothermal signal was revealed. It is shown that the process of thermal arid transformation of forest ecosystems leads to a general decrease in carbon accumulation in most groups of forest formations. The maps of the carbon content and the projected carbon balance of the main forest formations of the Volga basin for the moderate scenario of global warming allowed by the Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015) are presented.

Modern climate change is an important environmental problem of mankind. It is largely due to the powerful anthropogenic impact on the biosphere, in particular, deforestation. However, forests role in forming climate change in regions and the continents is still poorly understood. This primarily concerns the influence of forests on the gas composition of the surface layers of the atmosphere, their temperature, etc. The purpose of the study was an attempt to study theoretically the problem of assessing the matter and energy impact of the phytomass growth of Ukrainian forests on the surface atmosphere in comparison with other vegetation types. This applies to the carbon deposition, oxygen production, transpiration and the atmosphere enrichment with moisture, as well as the light and heat energy consumption from the environment. The theoretical concept is based on the known biochemical and physical laws. This is the substance and energy photosynthesis proportions and its accompanying transpiration, as well as the air cooling effect. The following axioms were taken as the basis of the study: – сlimate formation is largely connected with the energy and matter circulation in the biosphere; – at the local level near the earth's surface powerful matter and energy circulation is in progress between phytomass and the atmosphere; – the material and energy flow intensity is proportional to the increase of phytomass; – the phytomass increase occurs as the photosynthesis result and is accompanied by a powerful transpiration; – photosynthesis and transpiration require a large amount of energy consumption from the environment, which leads to its cooling. The calculation of the photosynthesis was performed balance on the basis of official materials as for productivity of forest, meadow vegetation and agriculture in Ukraine. Relevant final indicators of own experimental studies were also applied. The annual dry substance productivity of the total phytomass was taken as a basis. The substance and energy proportions of the generalized model of photosynthesis reaction are applied. Consumption: carbon dioxide – 3,668 tons, water – 1.5 tons and energy - approximately 11042 kWh. Production: oxygen – 2.67 tons and hexose - 2.5 tons, in which 1 ton of carbon is deposited. The volume of transpired moisture was calculated according to the phytomass dry substance productivity and the transpiration coefficient. Energy costs for transpiration were calculated according to the evaporation amount taking into account the specific vaporization heat. The cooling effect is calculated for the air surface layer 30 m height. This corresponds to average stand height at the age of 100. The calculation was performed on the basis of air energy consumption per 1 m2, that is from 30 m3 taking into account its specific heat capacity. The obtained analytical materials clearly testify the photosynthesis processes significant influence and the accompanying transpiration on the gas composition and energy potential of air surface layer. Generally, Ukraine's forests are able to deposit 3 t∙ha-1 of carbon during the year. This leads to the production of 8 t∙ha-1 oxygen and air enrichment with moisture in the amount of 3600 t∙ha-1. These processes require appropriate energy consumption, which leads to cooling 30-meter air surface layer by an average of 2.4 °C during the year. Meadow vegetation and agricultural crops also perform such ecological functions. However, this occurs only during a relatively short photosynthetic period. In terms of photosynthesis and transpiration intensity, forest ecological functions are three times higher than the corresponding properties of meadow vegetation. In the case of highly productive forests growing, the annual growth of which would reach 10 m3∙ha-1, the enrichment of the surface atmosphere with oxygen would be twice as much as with the current increase of 5 m3∙ha-1, and water vapor – three to four times more. Accordingly, the thermal energy consumption from the environment would be three to four times higher.

The biological invasion of non-native organisms can cause significant economic losses as well as large-scale damage to natural ecosystems. Among the invasive insects, the spread of alien phyllophagous insects feeding on the plant leaves is becoming increasingly important. The reconnaissance survey of green areas and forests in the Lviv, Transcarpathian, and Ternopil regions of Ukraine, aiming to identify the invasive species, was conducted in 2017-2019. The symptom/damaged part and a close-up of any feeding of phyllophagous insects including larvae, adults, pupae, or eggs were collected and labelled using general recommendation for collecting arthropod pests. Accurate identification and specimen affiliation were carried out based on microscopic analyses, available guides, or online resources. Fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) is the species of internal quarantine in Ukraine that has been successfully introduced and spread in forests, gardens, and green plantations; it is widespread across Ukraine. The larva of false acacia sawfly (Nematus tibialis) was rarely found feeding on the leaves of black locust with no significant threat to the species' trees. In 2014, box tree moth (Cydalima perspectalis) penetrated into the territory of Transcarpathia from Hungary. Nowadays, this invasive species is spread in all green areas of big cities such as Lviv, Odesa, Kyiv, Kharkiv, Mykolaiv, Dnipro, and in the Transcarpathian region causing a huge foliage loss to boxwood plants. The invasive elm zigzag sawfly (Aproceros leucopoda), causing local damage to Ulmus trees, was recorded in 2010. The horse-chestnut leaf-mining moth (Cameraria ohridella) is still a leader among the invasive leaf miners in urban plantations. It has spread almost all over the country and causes significant infestation of horse-chestnut leaves every year, even if there is no evidence that moth damage leads to tree death. An increasing importance of damages caused by invasive leaf miners feeding in the mines of the leaves of lindens (lime leaf mine Phyllonorycter issikii), planes (plane leaf miner Phyllonorycter platani) and locusts (leaf blotch miner moth Macrosaccus robiniella, locust digitate leafminer Parectopa robinella) was also recorded. Recently, the strong damage of sycamore lace bug (Corythucha ciliata), a new invasive species that belongs to the piercing and sucking insects feeding on the lower leaf side and sucking sap was detected in the Transcarpathian and Kherson regions of Ukraine. Since 2018, this invasive pest has penetrated into the urban green areas of Lviv City. The citrus flatid planthopper (Metcalfa pruinosa), another invasive species, was recorded in Transcarpathian and Odessa regions. It is considered as a very important invasive species due to its gregarious behavior and mobility. The brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys) was also found on agricultural crops in the Odessa region. Newly detected invasive species have all the prerequisites for further distribution into the forests and green plantations across Ukraine. Lilac leafhopper (Igutettix oculatus) was identified as an invasive pest of Syringa spp., Ligustrum spp. and Fraxinus spp. in the green urban areas of Lviv City in 2019. The importance of invasive aphids such as Prociphilus fraxinifolii, Appendiseta robiniae, Aphis craccivora, A. nerii, Illinoia lambersi has also increased especially in green urban areas between 2018 and 2019. Black locust gall midge Obolodіplosіs robіnіae was also found widely distributed. However, it does not have currently any significant damaging effect on black locust trees. Newly recorded identification of invasive phyllophagous insects may amplify the concern on the increasing threat to the leaves of forests and green plantations. Based on personal observations and literature analyses, we strongly believe that the main pathway of invasive insects’ spread in Ukraine is the trade of planting material and ornamental plants. We have found that the use of chemical and mechanical methods to control the spread of invasive phyllophagous insects does not provide a sufficiently long-lasting effect. According to the research review, the natural control of invasive phyllophagous insects is possible only when an effective parasitic complex occurs. This complex, in combination with other measures, can become the basis of the integrated protection methods for forests and green urban areas in the future.

Aim. To identify the modern phytocenotic and floristic diversity of the Western Caucasus and to present the specifics of its florocenocomplexes.Material and Methods. The article is written on the basis of many years of expeditionary and stationary research using classical geobotanical methods.Results. According to research the flora of the region comprises about 3,500 species of vascular plants from 178 families and 936 genera, indicating a high level of floristic diversity. The spectrum of the leading families of the Western Caucasus is close to the Mediterranean type. The region’s flora has a high index of endemism. The vegetation cover is characterized by latitudinal and altitudinal zonation. The sozological significance of ceno‐complexes is shown. The principal vegetation types of the region are considered: the ancient flood‐littoral landscapes of the river Kuban delta, the psammophilic littoral vegetation with specific rare species of the Azov Sea and the Black Sea, steppe communities, mountain forests, ecotone zone of crooked and subalpine forests, subalpine and alpine meadows and carpets. A petrophytic flora complex (Petrophyton) is represented in each altitudinal zone. For high mountain petrophytic cenoses, the cenotic structure and endemic species are given. The floristic and cenotic differentiation of the forests of the Western Caucasus is conidered.Conclusions.The Western Caucasus is one of the centres of floristic and cenotic diversity of the Caucasian ecoregion. It is characterized by a high population and species diversity, a large number of endemic species and ceno‐complexes. The Western Caucasus is a refugium of ancient ecosystems with Colchidic and Mediterranean roots.

This paper considers taxonomic, eco-coenotic, and geographic diversity of the forest flora of the Central Ciscaucasia comprising 735 species of vascular plants belonging to 101 family and 353 genera. The taxonomic structure of the first ten families of forest flora is similar to Ciscaucasian flora. The forests have a European–sub-Mediterranean–Eurasian range of geographic elements with boreal and Caucasian addition. Overall, the development of forest flora of this region and of the East European Plain showed the tendency toward the incubation of the European complex into sub-Mediterranean and boreal types with their gradual displacement.

According to the data of the State Forest Registry and the archive materials of the State Forest Fund Account carbon budget of the forests of federal districts (FDs) of Russia was calculated for the years 1988–2015. The total carbon pool of the forested lands of Russia amounted to 123.77±18.93 Gt C as of 01.01.2015. The biggest contribution to the national forest carbon pool was made by Siberian (36.4%) and the Far Eastern (35.2%) FDs followed by the Northwestern (11.3%), Ural (9.3%), Volga (4.4%), the Central (2.8%), North Caucasian (0.3%) and the Southern (0.2%) FDs. Contribution to the national forest carbon sink (206.10±66.86 Mt C yr -1) by districts: the Siberian district 39.3%, the Far Eastern 15.1%, the Northwestern 12.4%, Volga 12.1%, Ural 11.0%, and the Central 8.8%. Two groups of districts stand out in terms of the average value of forest carbon sink: 1) with 0.64–0.85 t С ha-1 year-1 (the Central, the Southern, North Caucasian, Volga FDs), 2) with 0.11–0.33 t C ha-1 year-1 (the Northwestern, Ural, Siberian, the Far Eastern FDs). The magnitude of the carbon sink in the forests of the FDs was at its lowest in 1988–1993. The reduction of losses due to felling in 1993–2000 resulted in increased carbon sink in the majority of federal districts. According to the level of this increase the forests of FDs can be divided into 2 groups: 1) with a significant increase in carbon sink (by 86% and more) – the Northwestern, Ural, Siberian, the Far Eastern FDs; 2) with a moderate increase in carbon sink (by 4–46%) in the Central, the Southern, North Caucasian and Volga FDs.

Materials on the natural features and present-day status of forests on the northern shore of Lake Ladoga are presented. The study area covers some 700 km along the shore – from the Svir River mouth to the R. Kokkolanjoki – L. Veyalanjarvi – R. Asilanjoki system (the Asilanjoki empties into Lake Ladoga at the border between Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Region). The material was gathered through analysis of archival data,satellite and aerial images, surveys of the shore along pre-defined routes, and descriptions of the forest cover along landscape profiles. Within a coastal strip of up to 10 kmwide, 9 profiles (41 km long in total) have been established at different times in the past, 6 of them (28 km) starting from the shoreline. This part of the shore is occupied almostentirely by the following geographical landscape types: a) lacustrine and glaciolacustrine heavily paludified flatland with pine habitats prevailing; b) lacustrine and glaciolacustrinemoderately paludified flatland with pine habitats prevailing; c) rocky, slightly paludified landscape with pine habitats prevailing. In the middle taiga subzone of Karelia, these typesoccupy 8, 4.5 and 1 % of its area, respectively. General characteristics of the landscapes (geological-geomorphological, degree of paludification, soil cover) are briefly described.The range, ratio and spatial arrangement of forest types were identified (with examples of the most characteristic fragments of landscape profiles). The distinctive features of forestin some locations on the shore are reported. The transformations of the forest cover as a result of human activities are evaluated (through comparison with archival, nearly 150‑year-old, forest inventory data). The present-day situation is described in terms of designation of protected areas of various categories and protective forests.

The paper presents the results of a study of the population of earthworms at three stages of after-felling succession of coniferous-deciduous forests in the North-West Caucasus (headwaters of the river Pshekha and headwaters of the river Belaya). Studies were conducted in three types of forest communities: the early stage – aspen-hornbeam-honeysuckle small herb forests, the intermediate stage – spruce-hornbeam small herb forests, the late stage – beech-fir dead cover forests. There are brown forest soils. It was shown that in the course of post-workout succession, significant transformations of the earthworm complex occur only at a late stage, where biomass worm increases significantly. Four morpho-ecological groups of Lumbricidae dwell only at a late stage in the old forest, despite the fact that at this stage the structure of ecological-cenotic groups of plants is simplified and oligodominant dead-cover communities with a predominance of boreal species are formed. Species of Lumbricidae with a сrimean- caucasian type of habitat (D. schmidti, D. mariupolensis) are dominated at all stages of forest succession. The demographic structure of the earthworm complex is stable in all types of forests and represented by different ontogenetic conditions with a significant predominance of juvenile worms – 65-78%.

The taxonomic, ecologo-cenotic and geographical diversity of the flora of forests of the Central Ciscaucasia, counting 735 species of vascular plants belonging to 101 families and 353 genera is considered in the article. The taxonomic structure of the forest flora according to the composition of the first ten families corresponds to the flora of the Ciscaucasia. Forests have a European-sub-Mediterranean-Eurasian with a boreal and Caucasian impurity range of geographic elements. The general course of development of the forest flora of the region as well as the forests of the Eastern European Plain went in the direction of incubation of the European complex into sub-Mediterranean and boreal types with their gradual displacement.

The calculations of forest carbon budget of federal districts (FD) of Russia is performed using data of State forest registry and archive materials of state forest fund accounts. Total carbon reserves on forested lands of Russia at 01.01.2015 were 123.77±18.93 Gt C. The input to national forest carbon reserves were maximal in Siberian (36.4%) and Far East (35.2) FD. The next were North-West (11.3%), Ural (9.3%), Volga (4.4%), Central (2.8%), North-Caucasian (0.3%) and South (0.2%) FD. Inputs to national forest carbon sink (206.10±66.86 Mt C year-1) were by FD: Siberian 39.3%, Far East 15.1%, North-West 12.4%, Volga 12.1%, Ural 11.0%, Central 8.8%. Two groups of FD can be selected based on average carbon sink value: 1) with range 0.64-0.85 t C ha-1 year-1 (Central, South, North-Caucasian, Volga), 2) with range 0.11-0.33 t C ha-1 year-1 (North-West, Ural, Siberian, Far East). Carbon sink to forest of all FD was minimal in 1988-1993. The decrease of carbon losses with felling in 1993-2000 led to increase of carbon sink in majority of FD. FD can be subdivided by value of carbon sink increase on 2 groups: 1) with considerable increase (more then 86%) including North-West, Ural, Siberian, Far East; 2) with moderate increase (4-46%) including Central, South, North-Caucasian, Volga.

The White Sea coastline within the Republic of Karelia stretches for ca. 380 km. All of the adjacent area belongs to the White Sea Lowland, and the coastline is the eastern fringe of Fennoscandia. The Karelian part of the White Sea coast falls into two parts termed Karelian Coast (from the border with the Murmansk Region to the Kem River) and Pomor Coast (from the Kem River to the border with the Arkhangelsk Region). The Pomor Coast partially extends into the Arkhangelsk Region. The land is generally quite uniform, only with a differentiation into three types of the north-taiga landscape, which differ in landforms, their genesis, Quaternary sediments, spatial coverage of mires, and prevalent types of forest habitats. The paper offers short multi-sided descriptions of the landscape types roughly structured as follows: 1) geographic position and distribution; 2) specific traits of: а) genetic landforms and Quaternary sediments; b) soil cover and paludification; c) forest cover and forest plant communities; 3) representativenessfor coenotic diversity and forest cover integrity; 4) vulnerability of natural ecosystems to human impact. Vulnerability assessments took into account potential logging-relatedchanges in the soil cover condition, alteration of the paludification rate due to removal of the tree cover or the probability of this process being accelerated or reversed; potential detrimental effects of logging on microclimate (wind and temperature conditions); 5) distinctive features compared to the rest of Karelia; 6) presence of operating protectedareas. In addition, the specific features of plant communities on islands in the western part of the White Sea are described.

The results of long-term research on forests in natural biogeographical corridors (territories with forests, mires, inland lakes and other land categories) connecting the largest bodies of water in Northern Europe (Baltic Sea-Gulf of Finland and lakes Ladoga and Onego to the White Sea) are reported. These corridors link isolated pieces of the Eurasian taiga biome at the boundary between two of Europe’s physiographic divisions – Fennoscandian Shield and Russian Plain. They facilitate the dispersal and migration of plant and animal species. The straight-line terrestrial stretch between the Gulf of Finland and the White Sea is around 320 km, and it falls into three sections in the southern, middle and northern taiga subzones, respectively. The corridors were characterized and assessed as follows: 1) physiographic (landscape) features; 2) key natural characteristics (typological structure, quantitative ratios, spatial arrangement, productivity, etc.), present-day condition of forests, including data from forest management inventories of the past decade; 3) overall assessment of the forest cover transformation by human impact; 4) current system of protected areas and protective forests, and its capacity to fulfill the functions of the corridors (sufficiency).

Public administration of forests is one of the most important sectors of ecological public administration at the national and local levels. Forest legislation is the legal basis for management, whose quality and regulatory capacity ensure the effectiveness of state power activities aimed at sustainable use, protection and regeneration of forests. The need for reforming and properly updating forest legislation and law enforcement is long overdue, which is confirmed by scientific studies and actual facts. A basic problem of forest management is the absence of an official definition of «forest» and «urban forest». Problems of forest fire protection and management problems in the forest sector (e.g. related to the provision of forest plots and the sale and purchase of forest stands) are widespread. Management problems also cover a mismatch of legislative activity of the competent entities regarding the regulation of forestry relations, the one-time combination of regulatory and supervisory functions in the same bodies, as well as the lack of a single current and objective system of state cadastral registration. The paper mentions peculiarities of identifying legal responsibility for forest offenses. It is noted that office of public prosecutor, being a central supervisory agency of the state due to the nature of its job and position in a system of separation of powers, has vast (if compared with other subjects of administrative relations) opportunities to identify, overcome and eliminate the problems of management of forests. The paper considers separate case materials that show an active role of the national public prosecutor’s office in supporting law and order in the examined field. Generalized conclusions are drawn based on the results of the study.

An attempt to reveal some of the unique features of the Kislovodsk medical park landscape and explain reasons for its beneficial effects on human health, which could serve as one of the arguments to justify giving the park the status of specially protected area have been done in the paper. It marked features of the climate of the park, reminiscent of the features of the monsoon – a dry winter and a moderately humid summers. It’s stated, that one of the main features of the landscape of the park is the presence of layers of the upper and lower Cretaceous (former biosphere by V. I. Vernadsky) in which biogeochemical information for many tens of millions of years is compressed. Rocks, coming to the surface, creating a polypaleobiospheris structure of the park. The data on the influence of the chemical composition of rocks (former biospheres) on forest and meadow-steppe formation are presented. It is shown, that the same rock formed a close relationship Ca and Mg in the soil absorbing complex mountain-meadow chernozem (mould humus) and forest soils in the area of nutrition sources and mineral water to a depth of tens of meters in Kislovodsk. It emphasizes the potential of the park selection plants (800 species of herbaceous and more than 250 species and varieties of trees and shrubs) volatile compounds that reflect the biogeochemical characteristics of rock ten tiers of the lower and upper Cretaceous. The geological age of various rocks is recommended to consider with forest plantation and forest typological zoning and development. It is considered appropriate to introduce under the canopy of artificial plants useful forest plants. It’s offered to include in the park area Kislovodsk forestry district and all forests within the boundaries of mountain-sanitary protection zone of the Caucasian Mineral Waters resorts.

High-altitudinal forests of Severo-Chuisky range have high biodiversity of vessel plants. The highest biodiversity are registered in old age Siberian stone pine forests. The article includes information of taxonomical, chorological and ecological structure of flora of high-altitudinal forests; information on coenoflora of old Siberian stone pine and younger Siberian larch forests, which was formed at the place of cinder-places and fluvioglatial scurf. Asian species are dominating in coenoflores. All coenoflores are noticeably isolated and enriched with psychrophit species.

The article sheds light on the circumstances predominantly causing that Forest Regulation (1857) be introduced, the very procedure of its introduction, puts forward the contents of that act and systematizes its articles. Not very long after the introduction of the Regulation on Deforestation (1839), the public expressed discontent with the effects it had caused. From the mid-forties ever more criticism emerges towards that rule, demanding its abolition and replacement with another regulation which would protect forests in a better manner. In the beginning of fifties the voices that Serbia was being mercilessly deforested provoke the first drafts of new regulation. In 1855, State Council proposes the prince the outline of Forest Regulation consisting of 27 articles and containing provisions on the sorts of wood whose cutting is permitted, the procedure of issuing tree-cutting permit, taxes for downed trees depending on the purposes of their use and sort of wood, penalty provisions and attribution of lands covered by forests to the poor. Nevertheless, in 1856 the prince declined his sanction and requested the Council to reconsider its draft. Due to the request, the Council decided to confide reproduction of the outline to the Commission antecedently formed in order to examine state income and expenditure and draw up a tax reform. The Commission completed its task in February 1857, sending the Council altered version of prime draft, in some places significantly differing from the original. However, the Council failed to adopt the majority of Commission's remarks. Instead, it withdrew some of original provisions and replaced it to its own new resolutions. Such text was sent to the prince on May 18th, 1857. The ruler expressed his approval and requested the Council to resend him the draft in the appropriate form of regulation. The Council had granted the recommendation and the draft, now in requested form, was sent anew to the prince, who eventually, on June 26th approved the introduction of the Forest Regulation. Withal, some loopholes were noticed afterwards, so the Council decided to unify three authentic interpretations issued on the initiative of Ministries of Finances and Internal Affairs into a single act -- supplement to the Regulation. Future research on this field should focus on the reactions that the Regulation caused among the public, its comparison to the Regulation on Deforestation and further elaborate the social context that preceded the Regulation's enactment. Only after having deepened actual knowledge on the Regulation with answers to aforementioned questions, will the Regulation be wholly scientifically examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Betula pendula and B. pubescens are widespread species inhabiting the forest zone of Russia. At the same time, they are closely related species making up transitional forms. It is believed that their ecological ranges are overlapping to a great extent, although B. pubescens is more hydrophilic than B. pendula and less exigent to sunlight. These data, obtained by means of empirical observations, help to understand the ecology of both birch species but so far are not statistically proved. An analysis of habitat distribution of the two birch species is carried out, and a comparison is performed of their ecological relations with such factors as humidification, trophic status, acidity, illumination, and nitrogen soil richness (graded by D. Tzyganov scales). It is shown that B. pendula and B. pubescens differ significantly with relation to humidification, soil richness, nitrogen concentration, and illumination, while do not differ with relation to acidity. Habitat preferences indicate that B. pubescens is more eurytopic species than B. pendula. Although synecolog-ical ranges of both species overlap, their synecological optima still clearly stand apart.

The vertical distribution of ¹³⁷Cs in Albeluvisols of the spruce forest in the Roslavl district of Smolensk region was investigated. The statistical characteristics of spatial variability and distribution laws for the activity con- centrations and activity depositions of ¹³⁷Cs in upper soil layers (forest litter, 0-5, 5-10, 10-19 cm) were de- termined. Positive correlations between the height, crown length of spruce trees and the content of ¹³⁷Cs in the soil under them were revealed. The regularities of spatial configuration of ¹³⁷Cs contamination in soil were related to the parcel structure of spruce forest. The lateral trends for distribution of 137Cs along the tessers un- der spruce and during the transfer to the open positions between the trees were recorded.

Using long-term direct observations in a Polytrichum-Myrtillus pine forest, we have constructed and verified a homogeneous Markov chain model for two dominant species (Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis-idaed) at the late stages of succession. The sampling design features a large sample size (2000 quadrats) on permanent transects, several re-examinations with the interval of 5 years, and the use of species rooted frequency. As a model of the process under concern, the discrete Markov chain accounts for the following four states: both species being absent on the quadrat, one of them being present alone, and the joint presence of the both; the model time step coincides with the time interval between observations. The model is calibrated on the data of two successive examinations and verified on that of one more examination. All possible transitions between the states are revealed to realize in quadrats for one time interval, as well as the absence of transitions at each state, which results in the complete digraph (directed graph) of transitions. Major model results are obtained by the formulae of finite Markov chain theory: the steady-state square distribution, cyclicity characteristics, and the mean durations of stages in the fine-scale dynamics. As a steady-state (stable) outcome of succession, the distribution among quadrats is expected where 30% of quadrats are occupied by V. myrtillus alone, 11% by V. vitis-idaea alone, both species are present on 18% of quadrats, and 41% of quadrats are 'empty'. This demonstrates a possibility for V. myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea to coexist stably at the latest stages of succession, with the clear predominance of V. myrtillus, yet without competitive exclusion. The quantitative characteristics of cyclicity and the durations of stages in the fine-scale dynamics enable us to estimate the total duration of secondary post-fire succession as about 45 years (to reach a distribution of states that differs less than 5% from the steady-state one). Out of the four states specified, the quadrats with V. vitis-idaea alone persist for the least time (8 years) on the average, while 'empty' ones persist for the greatest time (18 years). Forecasting the dynamics for one model time step forward and comparing the forecast with the real square distribution have revealed the measure of difference to be 5.4%. This illustrates the efficiency of the (time-)homogeneous Markov chain as a short-term forecast tool, yet leaves open the question whether the homogeneity hypothesis be true in the longer term.

The association of different characteristics of soil nematode communities with the type of natural (forest and meadow) biocenoses and the main parameters of assessment of the state of soil ecosystems were determined in the course of monitoring. It was found that the number of nematodes and number of taxa in the fauna are highly variable. It was noted that meadow biocenoses stand apart by the diversity of nematodes and the proportion of phytoparasites in the community structure. A significant functional load in the distinguishing of the main types of biocenoses was determined only for the index reflecting the organic matter decomposition in the soil using discriminant analysis. It was shown that the complex analysis of the parameters of nematode communities most informatively characterizes the state of the soil ecosystem.

Using successional system of Stachyo sylvaticae-Tilietum cordatae association as a case study, the possibilities are considered of applying syntaxonomy as developed on the basis of floristic classification principles. Characteristics of restorative successions on cut-over lands have been analysed at strong and weak disturbance of soil cover as well as in plantings of coenotically weak species Pinus sylvestris and coenotically strong species Picea obovata. High self-restoring potential of the association studied is emphasised.

Primary plant successions on volcanic deposits of the Tolbachinskii DoI Plateau (Central Kamchatka) were studied. The main factors determining the succession rate were revealed. The peculiarities of plant successions on lava flows and ash-scoria deposits differed significantly. Some common mechanisms for all volcanic regions of the world were revealed. The leading factors of plant succession on lava flows were the type of lava surface, the texture of lava, and the fine tephra accumulation rate. The main factors determining plant succession on ash-scoria deposits were wind and water erosion and the distance to the seed sources. The time of formation of a secondary permanent larch (Larix cajanderi Mayr.) forest should take about 1500-2000 years on lava flows and up to 1000 years (but not less than 300-500 years) on ash-scoria plains.

Mechanisms of interactions between species present one of the central problems of contemporary behavioral and evolutionary ecology. Field observations of possible resource redistribution and mutual behavioral adaptations between representatives of different guilds with substantially overlapping niche parameters are, so far, few. Using the methods of small mammals censuring, with account for their mobility and burrowing activity, at the sites with high and low dynamical density of wood ants Formica aquilonia, as well as in anthills proper, spatial interactions between these animals are revealed for the first time which are based on seasonal transformations of topic competition and synoecism. Species composition and domination structure of small mammals communities appear to be similar in those territories controlled by F. aquilonia and almost free of them. However, judging by animals’ spatial distribution and activity it can be suggested that wood ants, being a disturbing factor, markedly reduce the numbers and burrowing activity of small mammals in their territory and, apparently, hinder mammals dispersion. During seasonal resting of ants, when they move down into the soil, anthills attract a lot of small animals: from October to May up to 84% ant nests are burrowed by murine rodents and insectivore mammals. It seems to be possible that there are trophic relationships between small mammals and wood ants, with mammals consuming nest substrate as well as insects themselves.

In spite of reduction in atmospheric emission, current state of forest ecosystems within the impact zone of Severonickel enterprise still reflects the entire spectrum of anthropogenic digression stages. As the distance to the enterprise grows shorter, structural-functional changes in forest communities are manifested in dropping out of mosses and lichens, replacement of undershrub by Poaceae, worsening of timber stand and undergrowth conditions and their progressive dying-off, and, as a result, in forming of anthropogenic wastelands. Alterations of elemental composition of fir bark and needles due to exposure to pollutants consist in accumulation of nickel, copper, cobalt, arsenic, and sulfur along with depletion of calcium, magnesium, manganese, and zinc. According to the data obtained by correlation and multiparameter analyses, the accumulation of heavy metals in fir organs is closely related to the increasing of their concentration in root-inhabited soil layers as the distance to the pollution source is getting shorter. By comparison with the background fir grove, concentration of available compounds of nickel and copper in the ground litter of open fir-birch woodland near the enterprise increases by the factor of 30-60, reaching up 280 and 130 mg/kg respectively. With the increasing of anthropogenic stress, the ground litter becomes depleted of available calcium, magnesium, potassium, manganese, and zinc. For the first time, the coupled dynamics of vegetation and soil state in fir forests as a response to reduction in atmospheric emission is tracked back. The most distinguishable response to the reduction appears to be the development of small-leaved plants' young growth within the impact zone. For the last decade, concentration of nickel in fir needles and in ground litter has reduced by the factor of 1.2-2. As for copper, its concentration in needles has reduced by the factor of 2-4, though in ground litter remains the same. By comparison with the period of maximum emission at the edge of 1980-90s, in open fir-birch woodland near the enterprise the concentration of nickel and copper in needles has reduced by the factors of 2.5-6 and 7-12 respectively. This reduction of heavy metals concentration in fir needles is related mainly to diminishing of their emission from the atmosphere, although their stores, accumulated in soil during previous decades, still remain quite plentiful.

Flora similarity was assessed using complete floristic lists of five ecotopes in each of four mounds along the transect from meadow steppes to desert steppes. It was found that the circumapical similitude of floras is more significant than the expositional similitude. Soil analysis in separate ecotopes showed that regular changes in the biogeochemical features are manifested along the topographic gradient and under the effect of the insolation exposure of slopes in local (mound) ecosystems. It was noted that the slopes are characterized by the most abundant steppe vegetation classes in the phytosociological spectrum of mound ecotopes.

The results of dating of extreme climatic events by damage to the anatomical structure and missing tree rings of the Siberian larch in the upper forest boundary of the Altai Republic are given. An analysis of the spatial distribution of the revealed dates over seven plots (Kokcy, Chind, Ak-ha, Jelo, Tute, Tara, and Sukor) allowed us to distinguish the extreme events on interregional (1700, 1783, 1788, 1812, 1814, 1884), regional (1724, 1775, 1784, 1835, 1840, 1847, 1850, 1852, 1854, 1869, 1871, 1910, 1917, 1927, 1938, 1958, 1961), and local (1702, 1736, 1751, 1785, 1842, 1843,1874, 1885, 1886, 1919, 2007, and 2009) scales. It was shown that the events of an interregional scale correspond with the dates of major volcanic eruptions (Grimsvotn, Lakagigar, Etna, Awu, Tambora, Soufriere St. Vinsent, Mayon, and Krakatau volcanos) and extreme climatic events, crop failures, lean years, etc., registered in historical sources.

Emission of methane from the grass-moss fens of the Western Siberia subtaiga was studied using a static chamber method. It was established that a median half of the interquartile range of the specific flow of CH4 in the studied wetland ecosystems constituted 4.9 ± 2.9 mg of CH4/(m2 x h). It was shown that such a high spatial variability of emission is caused mainly by the difference in the level of fen waters. It was found that, in these observations, a higher level of the water stand correlates with lower emission values. The causes of this phenomenon are discussed, and recommendations for conducting field studies for estimating the regional flow are given.

The article provides a list of 30 species of the family Tabanidae, recorded in Belgorod Province. Forest and forest-steppe species dominate (60 %), being found at edges of oak forests, deciduous and mixed forests, and in mesophytic meadows. These species are distributed over the entire area of the region. The fraction of taiga-forest species in the region is small (10 %). These species are found in western and northern areas where large forests and sphagnum bogs are present. The fraction of steppe species constitutes 13.3 %, these species are found mainly in eastern and south-eastern parts of the Province, where areas of steppe and cretaceous outcrops are found. Desert species (6.7 %) and a single Mediterranean coastal species were also recorded in the region. Mass emergence of horseflies in Belgorod Province begins in June and lasts until mid-August.

Polyvariant ontogeny (PVO) is expressed visually in the life cycle graphs (LCGs) for Calamagrostis woodreeds as a variety of pathways for individual plants to develop through many of their states distinguishable by the ontogenetic stage and chronological age (in years). PVO is recognized as the basic mechanism of adaptation in local plant populations to their environments, while they find a quantitative measure of the adaptation via developing a matrix model of double-structured population, calibrating the matrix of vital rates from empirical data, and calculating its dominant eigenvalue λ1. This approach encounters an obstacle typical for rhizome grasses: while the rates of aging and ontogenetic transitions can be deterinined from field data mainly by the morphology of aboveground parts of the plant, the rates of vegetative propagation can be reliably determined only from digging up the belowground rhizome system, i.e., by destroying the sample plot ('reproductive uncertainty'). Therefore, the former (non-destroying) calibrations of matrix models were subjective to an extent, resulting in correspondingly subjective estimations. A novel method to overcome the 'reproductive uncertainty' makes use of the maximation hypothesis: the uncertain rates are such that λ1 attains its maximal possible value under the given conditions. To test the hypothesis, we have conducted a field experiment by a new technique with a model species, the woodreed Calamagrostis epigeios (L.). Roth, that reproduces vegetatively in a meadow phytocoenosis and a spruce forest clearance. Excavating the whole system of ramets with their rhizomes and analyzing the maternal-child links in the laboratory have provided for (in addition to the former data on the local population structures and ontogenetic transitions) a new kind of data to calculate the status-specific rates of reproduction. The novel method of calibration has enabled us to find an exact range of λ1 values, i.e., the true quantitative bounds of adaptation for a given local population. Obtained under the reproductive uncertainty and maximation hypothesis, the values of λ1 have turned out close to the upper bounds of the ranges, thus verifying the hypothesis. The experiment has discovered generative subsidiary plants sprouting from the rhizomes of maternal ramets without entering the virginal stage. As a result, the LCG enriches with new reproductive pathways, and the new (not yet published) situations emerge where λ1 fails in its accuracy as a measuring tool of comparative plant demography. We propose a general method to adjust the adaptation measure in this kind of situation.

Yeast abundance and diversity in a mixed forest sod-podzol soil under Impatiens parviflora DC plants was studied in comparison with unimpaired aboriginal herbaceous plants typical of the Mid-Russian secondary, after-forest meadow. The study was carried out throughout the vegetation period. Standard microbiological plating techniques revealed 36 yeast species. Typical pedobiotic (Cryptococcus podzolicus, Wickerhamomyces anomalus) and eurybiotic yeast species (Rhodotorula mucilaginosa) predominated in both biotopes. The relative abundance of the autochthonous soil yeast species Cryptococcus podzolicus was higher in the soil under aboriginal herbs than under Impatiens parviflora. Sites with aboriginal vegetation were also characterized by high abundance of the pedogamous species Schwanniomyces castelli and Torulaspora delbrueckii. The share of yeastlike Trichosporon fungi with high hydrolytic activity was considerably higher under adventitious plants Impatiens parviflora, as well as in the previously studied soil under Heracleum sosnowskyi.

The reaction of males of three forest rodent species (Myodes clethrionomys, M. rutilus, Apodemus uralensis) to young animals in comparison with their dimensional characteristics and androgenization level was studied. Demonstration of parental care was detected in males of two vole species (M. clethrionomys and M. rutilus) in case of regular contacts with them (sensitization effect). It was demonstrated that the testosterone concentration in the blood serum, as well as the testosterone content in the testicles of the M. clethrionomys males (demonstrating the parental care), was higher than in the sample of males inclined to infanticide. An increased testosterone content in the testicles and blood serum was also found in the M. rutilus males that had contact with young animas. Neither demonstration of parental care nor significant differences in the testosterone concentration in the testicles and blood serum were detected in the A. uralensis males.