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cAMP and cGMP are ubiquitous second messengers regulating a myriad of intracellular functions. Standard biochemical techniques to measure their levels in cells and tissues lack high temporal and any spatial resolution. To enable real-time monitoring of cAMP and cGMP in living cells and physiological systems, we and others have developed several biosensors based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer. This review will describe such novel techniques and discuss their application for various biological questions.

A method of the experts' evaluation of the medical care quality in licensing and accrediting the therapeutic-and-prophylaxis institutions (TPI) in the Orel Region is presented; the dynamics of experts evaluations of the material-and-technical outfit and of the personnel potential in the region's during 1993-2002 is described. The influence (produced on promoting the medical care quality) of the structural-and-organizational standards used in licensing and accrediting the TPIs in the Orel Region is analyzed. A comparative analysis of dynamics of the medical care quality by region's TPIs (including district, city and region TPIs) is made for the period of 1993-2002 on the basis of experts' evaluations.