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In turtles (Testudo horsfieldi, Emys orbicularis) the immunoreactivity for calbindin (CB), parvalbumin (PV), calretinin (CR), and colocalization of PV and CB in neurons of visual thalamic nuclei (Rot, GLD) projecting to the telencephalon were studied using combined immunohistochemical and tracer method. The predominance of CB-ir neurons in Rot, CB-ir and CR-ir neurons in GLD and a lower amount of PV-ir neurons in both nuclei were shown. With double labeling fluoroimmunohistochemistry technique the colocalization of PV with CB was revealed in the majority of PV-ir neurons and in a fewer number of CB-ir neurons within both nuclei. After delivery of horseradish peroxidase into the telencephalic projection fields of Rot and GLD, retrograde labeling was found in the corresponding thalamic projection neurons immunoreactive for every protein investigated. After fluorescent tracer (Fluoro Gold) injection into the same telencephalic regions retrograde labeling was observed in Rot and GLD neurons, immunoreactive only for PV or CB, as well in neurons with colocalization of the both proteins. These data support predominance of CB-ir component in the rotundo-telencephalic pathway and CB/CR components in the geniculo-telencephalic pathway in turtles. The role of functional specialization in segregation of neurons expressing different types of calcium-binding proteins is postulated.

The distribution of the immunoreactivity for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), calcium-binding proteins (CaBPr) and histochemistry of cytochrome oxidase activity (CO) was studied in turtles (Testudo horsfieldi, Emys orbicularis) isthmal complex of visual nuclei. Magnocellular nucleus (IMc) was shown to reveal mainly the strongly stained GABA-, parvalbumin (PV)-ir neurons and CO-positive cells, as well as variable both in number and degree of intensity of ChAT-, cal- bindin (CB)-, and calretinin (CR)-ir cells. After the local tracer injection into the optic tectum GABA-ir neurons containing also retrograde label were found in IMc. The most caracteristic of the parvocellular nucleus (IPc) was the content of strongly stained ChAT-ir neurons, dense GABA-ir and CO-active terminal fields, as well as the neurons variable by the amount and the degree of immunoreactivity for CaBPr and GABA. Principal similarity in these features in the turtle IMc and IPc and of those in the avian isthmal nuclei of the same name allows suggesting their homology and consequently the same participation in selective processing of the visual information flow. The comparison with lower vertebrates confirms the evolutionary conservatism of visual isthmal complex among vertebrates and the existence of its progressive differentiation in the process of evolution.

Data on distribution of biologically active substances in the turtle optic tectum are compared with results of similar experiments on other reptilian as well as on avian species. In two turtle species (Testudo horsfield and Emys orbicularis), immunoreactivity to monoamines (5-HT and TH), NPY, as well as NADPH-d activity were similarly distributed in neuropil of the SGFS retinorecipient part and in that of the SGP/SAP periventricular layers. Immunoreactivity to neuropeptides SP and m-Enk was maximal in neuropil of the SGFS non-retinorecipient part. The periventricular layers were characterized by the abundant radial SP- and mENK-ir as well as the NADPH-d-positive neurons. Diffusely dispersed ChAT-ir elements and many ir fibers perpenducilar to the tectal surface were observed in the SGFS retinorecipient part; the SGFS non-retinorecipient part contained a dense plexus of thick ir fibers and diffusely distributed ir terminals. The GABA ir cells were the most numerous in the tectum; they were spread in all tectal layers. Thus, various biologically active substance located in superficial retinorecipient tectal sublayers could affect processing and transmission of information via ascending dendrites of neurons in deeper layers. The cells containing SP, m-Enk, and NADPH-d had laminar organization in SGP; via the system of ascending and descending axons, they are able to affect other structures within and outside of the optic tectum. Putative sources of tectal modulatory innervation are discussed. In all studied reptilian and avian species, the principal similarity is revealed in the neurochemical organization. Some differences might be explained by the level of tectal differentiation due to factors of phylogenetic evolution and/or adaptive specialization.

The results of the comparative-anatomical investigation of the formation of ileocecal valve are presented. The study was based on the examination of the specimens obtained from 123 representatives of all vertebrate classes and 48 isolated preparations of ileocecal area of the intestine of corpses of humans aged 22-64 years. It was performed using anatomical, histological and morphometrical methods. It was shown that the formation of this closing mechanism followed the route from sphincter between small and large intestine to the development of a shutter and, eventually, of a valve. Using these concepts, the structural variants of ileocecal valve which were detected in humans were analyzed taking into consideration both its extreme variation forms (ileocecal morphological sphincter without the valve and ileocecal valve without the sphincter) and intermediate forms, which should be considered as the variants of norm.

The paper deals with one type of electrostimulation-transcranial electrostimulation (TES). It outlines the physiological mechanisms underlying TES, the clinical features of its application, the equipment performing TES, defines its optimum analgesic mode.

Ventral horns of the spinal cord obtained from 169 vertebrates (bony fish amphibians reptiles, birds and mammals, primates and Homo sapiens included) were studied Interrelations between motoneurons and macroglial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes) were examined on light optical and electron microscopic levels. It was found that the higher the evolutionary grade was, the bigger grew the number of glial satellite from the motoneuron environment and the more distinctive their differentiation became. Progressive evolutionary reorganizations in the organism (increase of influence of brain on spinal cord, possibilities of motor system, change of gas dynamics between blood and tissue etc) resulted in morphofunctional specialization of macroglia, participating in neuron maintenance in mammals and especially in primates and man.

In the experiments with isolated mitochondria in vitro (25 degrees C) it was shown that the respiration rate in mice was 3-5 times higher compared with agamas; in this case both animal species exhibited close body mass. At the comparison of mice and tortoises with the body mass 25-30 times exceeding the one of mice 4-10 times difference in mitochondrial respiration was found. In addition this difference was more pronounced with caprilate and pyruvate than with succinate used as substrates. High rates of respiration for mice mitochondria are shown to persist at wide temperature range in vitro. However respiration parameters for mice and agamas are close in vitro at the temperature of 37 degrees C for mice mitochondria (the optimal mouse body temperature is about 37 degrees C) and the temperature of 42 degrees C for agama mitochondria (the optimal life temperature for agamas is about 42 degrees C).

A difference in velocity of oxydation of the ATP substrates synthesis, conjugation and efficacy of oxydation of phosphorylation in animals with different functional systemic state, and seasonal differences in these processes, were found in different animals.

A theory for the DC field-induced polarization of arbitrarily branching dendrites is being suggested. Contributions of the dendrites and the axon to polarisation of the soma are estimated for a quasi-reconstructed turtle motoneuron. The polarization depends on the length constant monotonously and dose not depend on other electronic parameters. The measurement of the DC field-induced potential may be used for unique determination of the electrotonic structure of reconstructed cells, provided that a whole-cell recording is employed and the axons are unmyelinated, or truncated, or oriented across the field. Polarization of the distal dendrites is also being analyzed to get into insight into the phenomenon of the field-induced steady depolarization of the dendrites.

Morphological characteristics of comparative-anatomical formation of extra-organic and organic arteries and microcirculatory bed architectonics in duodenum of 312 certain representatives of all classes of vertebrates was given. It was shown that two groups of vessels qualitatively different in form and type of branching formed in the process of historical development: arteries with magistral-arcuate form of branching of non-anastomosing type and that with magistral-annular form of branching. The appearance of arterio-venular anastomosis type junctions in latter ones between one side of the intestine and veins of the opposite side provides the phenomenon of bilateral non-capillary countercurrent organic circulation. Microcirculatory bed of part of the villi completely lacked capillaries, while arterioles were connected with venules expertionally by arterio-venular anastomoses.

The supramolecular structure of glycogenolytic enzymes on intracellular organelles, their properties, and specific features of their regulation largely depend on ecological factors. Development of an ordered supramolecular structure on a glycogen granule and strength of the bond between its components are determined by temperature and do not depend on the mobility of the species in question. Specific features of activation of the glycogenolytic enzymes are determined by functional properties of the muscle tissue. Studies on a hydrodynamic device have shown relationship between activation of glycogen phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1) and glycogen phosphorylase kinase (EC 2.7.1.38) and the mobile activity of fish.

CM-5 fraction of tortoise spleen extract injected after irradiation in dose CD50/30 (540 R) raises a survival of mice to 73.4%. The number of endocolonies of spleen increases to 4.0 in experiment against 0.3 in control and the average life of experimental animals increases to 12.7 days against 8.8 in control. In vitro it has been found a considerable increase of RNA-synthetic activity of bone marrow cells stimulated by CM-5 fraction in post-irradiation period. The dose alteration factor for CM-5 fraction is 1.46 according to CD50/30 standard at survival test.

Adrenaline and acetylcholine were shown to induce a dose-dependent increase in tonic tension of isolated strips of the tortoise lumbar lymphatic cistern and the lizard cardinal lymphatic vessel. The affinity of adrenaline to receptors in the lizard lymphatic vessel was higher than in the tortoise lymphatic vessels, whereas the affinity of acetylcholine was higher in tortoises.

Histochemical studies have been made on the distribution of acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterases (ACHE and BCHE) in various parts of the human and rat brain. Statistical analysis showed that at the 8th week, the highest ACHE activity in the human foetus is observed in the intermediate and plexiform layers of the cerebral cortex. The highest BCHE activity was found in the ependymal layer of various cerebral regions. High BCHE and ACHE activities were noted in the dorsal thalamus and epithalamus. In 10-week human foetuses, total high level of ACHE and BCHE was revealed in various nuclei of the thalamus and subcortical structures of the forebrain (Meynert nucleus, nucleus caudatum). In rats, the highest ACHE activity at the 14th day of prenatal life was found only in subcortical structures of the forebrain. Accumulation of BCHE activity in some of the thalamic nuclei of rats begins at the 10-17th day of postnatal life.

The implantation of a bone marrow fragment of intact mouse donors below the kidney capsule of irradiated (7 Gy) recipients leads to the formation of the haemopoiesis locus that somewhat exceeds, by mass and cellularity, the new-formed locus of control animals. The U-2 fraction of a tortoise spleen extract administered to recipients irradiated with the same dose increases the mass and cellularity of the haemopoiesis locus by 2.2 and 4.9 times respectively.

Morphological characteristics in rearrangement of the structural components of the duodenum, renal parenchyma and their hemomicrocirculatory beds are presented at a chronic experimental external bile discharge in the tortoise. Common reactions of microvessels in response to this experimental action, manifesting as their constriction and dilatation, depend, possibly, on general changes in the organism specific for the acholia state. Specific rearrangements, such as reduction of blood capillaries of the duodenal mucous membrane and appearance of polypous outgrowths in this place with successive ulceration should be considered as a reaction to a decreased level of the functional loading to these parts of the duodenum.

The adrenergic and cholinergic innervation of the lungs have been studied by means of Falck and Koelle methods in amphibia (Rana temporaria), reptile (tortoise), vertebrates (white rat, domestic cat) and in the man. It has been found that as the structure and function of the lungs become more complicated, their innervation apparatus structure becomes more complex with increasing number of the adrenergic and cholinergic components in it. The distribution density of the adrenergic and cholinergic neural fibers in the lungs increases from the lower vertebrates to the higher ones. The distribution density of the cholinergic neural fibers in the bronchial wall decreases with diminishing of their caliber.

Phase changes in the content of biomembrane lipids and in the rate of their peroxidation were observed in liver microsomes of Testudo horsfieldi irradiated with a dose of 129.10(-1) C/kg. It is suggested that the decrease in the formation of peroxidation products of a diene series at the initial stage of radiation sickness are conditioned by the decrease in the activity of the key enzyme systems which regulate biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids, while the increase in the sphingomyelin level activates the lipid-dependent enzymes which repair the injured membranes.

X-ray diffraction method has been applied for comparative investigation of native structure of eye lens proteins (crystallins). X-ray diffraction patterns of the whole lenses and/or their nuclear parts were obtained for man and vertebrate animals. Crystalline lenses of the fishes Acerina cernua and Pelmatochromis kribensis, frog Rana temporaria, bull and man contain crystallins with a very similar secondary and tertiary structure, whereas lenses of chicks and the tortoise Testudo horsfieldi contain mainly crystallins with other structure. The results obtained reveal evolutionary conservatism of crystallin structure in fishes, amphibians and mammals. It was also concluded that there is no correlation between crystallin structure of the lens, elasticity of the latter and accommodation mechanism.

Studies have been made on plasmalogen and diacylic forms of phospholipids, i. e. phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine (their relative content and ratio), in subcellular fractions isolated from the brain of the trout Salmo trideus, frog Rana temporaria, pigeon Columba livia, tortoise Testudo horsfieldi, and rabbit. Investigation was carried out on 5 subcellular fractions (myelin, nuclei, microsomes, mitochondria, synaptosomes) as well as on brain homogenates. In all the fractions, relative content of plasmalogens is the lowest in the trout, increasing in parallel with the increase in the complexity of the nervous system and reaching the highest values in pigeons and rabbits.

Histochemical studies have been made on true (AChE) and false (BChE) cholinesterases in different parts of the telencephalon of amphibians, reptiles and mammals. The data obtained indicate that the enzymic localization depends on both the level of the development of the brain and phylogenetic age of its individual formations. In the telencephalon of Ambystoma mexicanum, high concentration of AChE was found in vascular-capillary network, in other investigated amphibians (Triturus vulgaris, Rana temporaria) diffuse distribution of AChE of different intensity was observed in ancient formations of the telencephalon (septum and striatum). In reptiles (Eremias arguta, Testudo horsfieldi) undifferentiated diffuse AChE reaction is predominant in ancient parts of the cortex (septum excluded), whereas differentiated cytoplasmic localization is typical of the old and new cortex. In the brain of the lizard high BChE activity was found in the conducting pathways. Mammalian brain (rabbit, guinea pig) exhibits differentiated AChE and BChE reactions in the old and new cortex.

Studies have been made on the composition of fatty aldehydes of plasmalogen form of ethanolamine phospholipid in the brain of 28 fish species (13 cartilaginous and 15 teleost species, exhibiting different level of organization of the nervous system, marine and freshwater, dwelling in different habitats), as well as in the brain of other vertebrates. It was found that in all primitive species of cartilaginous fish high degree of unsaturation of fatty aldehydes is observed; in higher species the degree of unsaturation is much lower. The highest degree of unsaturation of fatty aldehydes was demonstrated for abyssal species of cartilaginous and teleost fishes. In warm-water species which dwell in the upper layers, unlike all other fishes investigated, almost all fatty aldehydes are saturated. The ratio of unsaturated and saturated fatty aldehydes in fish brain depends on the entity of phylogenetic and ecological factors. Studies on other vertebrates show that in warm-blooded animals saturated fatty aldehydes predominate, whereas in cold-blooded-unsaturated ones are more abundant.

Studies have been made on the level of activity of anion ATPase and its sensitivity to anions in erythrocytic membranes from fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Significant variations in these properties of the ATPase were found among the species investigated. Protein composition of erythrocytic membranes was also investigated by means of disc-electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel in men, rabbit, rat, mouse, hamster, tortoise, crow and starling.

The fatty acid composition of sphingomyelin (Spm) was studied in the total brain, the forebrain and the brain stem in frogs (Rana temporaria and Rana ridibunda), the tortoise (Emys orbicularis), the hen and the cat. A typical fatty acid pattern of Spm was revealed irrespectively of the brain part examined. Regular differences in fatty acid composition of Spm between various brain parts were found irrespectively of the level of development of the nervous system. It may be concluded that corresponding changes in the fatty acid composition of Spm in the forebrain as well as in the brain stem are taking place in the course of evolution of the central nervous system.

Studies have been made on changes in the activity of Na,K-ATPase in brain homogenates of vertebrates (rat, hen, frog, tortoises) induced by various detergents (sodium deoxycholate, Twin-20, Twin-80, Triton X-100). After application of detergent at optimal concentrations, usually the enzymic activity increased, the increase being dependent on animal species and the brain structure. In crude homogenate of the forebrain, Na,K-ATPase activity was the highest in hen and was altogether absent in frog; detergents practically did not affect the enzymic activity in hen and sharply increased it in frogs. It is suggested that the activating effect of detergents is associated with damage of vesicular membrane structures which are formed during homogenization of the brain tissue, the degree of vesicularization being dependent on fatty acid composition of membrane phospholipids of the brain.

The activity of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGTF; EC 2.3.2.2) has been measured in the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, hippocamp and brain stem of mature wild and laboratory rodents (Oryctolagus cuniculus, Cavia porcellus, Rattus norvegicus, var. alb., Ochotona pusilla, Mesocricetus auratus, Clethrionimus glareolis, Mus musculus. var. alb.), as well as in homogenates of the whole brain of the tortoise Testudo horsfieldi, frog Rana temporaria and loach Misgurnus fossilis. In wild rodents the activity of GGTF was found to be higher than in laboratory ones. GGTF activity in the brain of warm-blooded animals is higher than that in the brain of the tortoise, frog and loach.

Studies have been made on cellular mechanisms of changes in the lymphatic organs of some vertebrates after the effect of hydrocortisone. The latter in a dose 100 mg/kg of the body mass significantly decreases the activity of the thymus in the tortoise Testudo horsfieldi, albino mice and frogs. The decrease in lymphopoiesis was also observed in the spleen and bone marrow. The duration of the latent period for the reaction of the lymphatic system is species specific. It amounts to 1-3 days in rats and mice, 3-5 days--in frogs and 5-10 days in tortoises. Possible mechanisms of these effects are discussed.

Protein composition of chromatins from the liver of various Vertebrates (frog, turtle, hen and rat) has been compared by the immunological method of double diffusion in gel. It was shown that non-histone chromosomal proteins and histones exhibit evident species specificity.

Electrophoresis of endonuclease-split rat liver chromatin in polyacrylamide and agarose gels of a monotonous concentration revealed different separation patterns. The first pattern exhibited a spectrum of chromatin fragments of discrete sizes, while the second one -- two fractions, i. e. DNP and DNA. The polyacrylamide gel concentration gradient allowed to achieve the best resolution of individual classes of chromation fragments with individual subfractions in sub-, mono- and trinucleosomes. A comparison of micrococcal nuclease-split chromatin fragments of vertebrates revealed nucleosomes of varying sizes. The heterogeneity of the nucleosomes was also found during isotachophoresis and free flow electrophoresis. An analysis of individual subfractions of the mononucleosomes revealed differences in the composition and number of proteins as well as in the kinetics of basic and acidic titration. The chromatin fractions obtained by discontinuous endonucleolysis differed in their composition from the individual subfractions of histones.

The Folch-Lees proteolipid complexes of different purity (crude proteolipids and relative pure proteolipids) were isolated from vertebrate brain: mammalia (Macaca irus, Macaca rhesus and white rat), birds (Columbia livia), reptilia (Testudo horsfieldi), amphibia (Rana temporaria) and fishes (Salmo irideus). The proteolipid complexes were isolated by emulsion-centrifugation method. The content of proteolipid protein (mg/g w. w.) correlates with the level of phylogenetic development of the animals studied. It is the highest in monkey brain (10.5 and 8.6 mg/g) and the lowest in fish brain (2.2 mg/g). The yield of proteolipids from the brains of animals studied shows the same pattern. Crude proteolipids of mammalia, birds and reptiles contain 40-50% of protein and 60-50% of lipids. The content of phospholipids is about 40%. Proteolipids of amphibia and fish brain contain less protein--about 30%. In the conditions of mild purification, the protein content in mammalia, birds and reptilia makes up about 70% and lipid content--about 30-35%. The crude and purified proteolipids in all the animals studied (as compared with the original lipid extracts from which they were isolated) are enriched in acid phospholipids: phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl inositol and diphosphatidyl glycerol. Acid phospholipids in total lipid extract make up 10-20% of total phospholipids, in crude proteolipids 16-32 and in purified proteolipids--56-75%. There are no marked differences between fatty acid composition of phospholipids in proteolipids and in the same phospholipids isolated from total lipid extract.

Bush interoceptors reveal their obvious heterogeneity of morphofunctional organization through non-standard responses of their units and elements to adequate and extreme irritants, the responses involving different degree of receptor resistance upon change of ionic power and in anoxia, and non-standard spikes of biopotentials. The morpho-functional heterogeneity of bush receptors seems to enlarge considerably the scope of adequate responses of reflexogenic areas to stimuli, thus raising the functional resistance of sensory system in unfavourable conditions.

Within evolutionary line of vertebrates, correlation between the degree of differentiation of the brain and peculiarities of the formation of complex behavioural acts may be observed. Gradual evolution in the organization of complex motor food-searching conditioned reflexes and the capacity to visual discrimination was revealed in phylogenetic line of vertebrates: elasmobranchs (rays and sharks), marine teleosts, reptiles (terrestrial tortoises), insectivores (hedgehogs), rodents (rats) and primates (lower monkeys).

Intraperitoneal administration of a spleen extract from Testudo horsfieldi and its U-2 fraction increases the number of endogenous splenic haemopoietic colonies. The U-2 fraction administered to irradiated (4 Gy) mice increases the number of bone marrow CFUs. Bone marrow cells of exposed (4 Gy) mice preincubated in vitro with the U-2 fraction also increase the number of exogenous colonies in the recipient's spleen.

In frogs, tortoises and rats autotransplantation of the whole gastrocnemius muscle has been performed into its own bed at sewing the nerve to the autotransplant and at its denervation. Fragments of the skeletal muscles are also transplanted into the brain and into the spinal cord in frogs and rats. By means of light and electron microscopy, restorative processes are studied in the transplanted muscles. Acceleration of histomorphogenesis of the muscular and nervous tissues is stated from the lower toward the higher Vertebrata. When the transplants are deprived of the connection with the nervous system, the cause of the form organization process in all the animals investigated is disturbed, however, the nervous-trophic regulation is of the greatest importance in the mammalia. The experiments reveal mutual regulation of the plastic activity in the nervous and muscular tissues, that becomes more intensive in the course of evolution.