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Data accumulated in scientific literature indicate that Parkinson's disease develops after infections caused by SARS-CoV-2, West Nile, Coxsackie, St. Louis viruses, Japanese encephalitis B, hepatitis B and C, influenza A, HIV, herpes viruses, flaviviruses. Neuroinvasive West Nile viruses and HIV activate expression of alpha-synuclein. Influenza A, SARS-CoV-2, and Coxsackie B3 viruses promote aggregation of alpha-synuclein, which has the biophysical characteristics of antiviral peptides and is required for neuronal interferon-stimulated gene expression. These mechanisms can be triggers of Parkinson's disease, which progression is due to involvement of retroelements activated under their influence, stimulating the interferon response, expression and aggregation of alpha-synuclein in the brain. Direct activation of retroelements of the human genome by the described viral infections has been identified. Additional factors are aging and Parkinson's disease-associated polymorphisms located in intergenic, intronic and regulatory regions where transposon sequences are localized. In addition, the influence of the distribution of retroelements in the genomes of human populations on susceptibility to Parkinson's disease and the role of transposons in monogenic forms of the disease were determined. The effects of pathologically activated retroelements in Parkinson's disease are changes in expression of microRNAs derived from them, which contribute to disruption of epigenetic regulation of genes in the brain and pathology progression. An analysis of the scientific literature made it possible to describe a decrease in the levels of 15 such microRNAs, which can serve as tools for targeted therapy of the disease.

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin, with a bilayer membrane, 30160 nm in diameter. Exosomes are released from cells of different origins and are detected in various body fluids. They contain nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, metabolites and can transfer the contents to recipient cells. Exosome biogenesis involves cellular proteins of the Rab GTPase family and the ESCRT system, which regulate budding, vesicle transport, molecule sorting, membrane fusion, formation of multivesicular bodies and exosome secretion. Exosomes are released from cells infected with viruses and may contain viral DNA and RNA, as well as mRNA, microRNA, other types of RNA, proteins and virions. Exosomes are capable of transferring viral components into uninfected cells of various organs and tissues. This review analyzes the impact of exosomes on the life cycle of widespread viruses that cause serious human diseases: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, SARS-CoV-2. Viruses are able to enter cells by endocytosis, use molecular and cellular pathways involving Rab and ESCRT proteins to release exosomes and spread viral infections. It has been shown that exosomes can have multidirectional effects on the pathogenesis of viral infections, suppressing or enhancing the course of diseases. Exosomes can potentially be used in noninvasive diagnostics as biomarkers of the stage of infection, and exosomes loaded with biomolecules and drugs - as therapeutic agents. Genetically modified exosomes are promising candidates for new antiviral vaccines.

Viruses are now recognized as bona fide etiologic factors of human cancer. Carcinogenic viruses include Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1, indirectly), and several candidate human cancer viruses. It is estimated that 15% of all human tumors worldwide are caused by viruses. Tumor viruses establish long-term persistent infections in humans, and cancer is an accidental side effect of viral replication strategies. Viruses are usually not complete carcinogens, supporting the concept that cancer results from the accumulation of multiple cooperating events, in which human cancer viruses display different, often opposing roles. The laboratory mouse Mus musculus is one of the best in vivo experimental systems for modeling human pathology, including viral infections and cancer. However, mice are unsusceptible to infection with the known carcinogenic viruses. Many murine models were developed to overcome this limitation and to address various aspects of virus-associated carcinogenesis, from tumors resulting from xenografts of human tissues and cells, including cancerous and virus infected, to genetically engineered mice susceptible to viral infections and associated cancer. The review considers the main existing models, analyzes their advantages and drawbacks, describes their applications, outlines the prospects of their further development.

Introduction: Cytokines activated in response to immunosuppressive viral infections can directly or indirectly affect the neoplastic transformation of B cells. In this study, we studied a new substance designed to produce the antiviral drug CelAgrip (CA, CelAgripus), which exhibits interferon (IFN) and cytokine-inducing activity and, apparently, can be used as an activator of antiviral immunity. Purpose - is to evaluate the cytokine-regulating effect of CA in Burkitt's lymphoma (LB) cell lines latently infected with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)., Objectives: to study the CA-induced expression of the cytokine genes IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-17, IL-18, IFN-α, IFN -γ, IFN-β, IFN-λ1, IFN-λ2, IFN-λ3, TNF-α in normal and EBV transformed LB cells., Material and Methods: Cell line: the human embryo fibroblasts (HEF), Namalva, Daudi, Raji, P3HR-1. Preparations: CA, gossypol-acetic acid (GAA), sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC)., Methods: RT-PCR and methods for assessing cytotoxicity (MTT and Scepter 2.0 Merck cell counter)., Results: The effect of the CA preparation on the expression of IFN-λ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 genes was revealed., Discussion: We observed the activation of gene expression of IFN-λ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and suppression of IL-10 gene activity when treatment CA of LB cells., Conclusion: The substance CA has new effects on the activation of the expression of a number of key cytokine genes in stable Burkitt lymphoma cell lines., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Antibodies (ABs) that target autoantigens were more abundant in the blood of humans and animals suffering from certain autoimmune and viral diseases than in the blood of healthy donors. The emergence of ABs with diverse types of catalytic activity is among the earliest manifestations of certain autoimmune diseases. The putative mechanisms that underlie the accumulation of autoantibodies and abzymes in different autoimmune diseases are addressed in the present review. The extraordinary diversity of abzymes with various types of catalytic activity is discussed.

In several regions of Russia, broad distribution of RNA-containing bee viruses was found at apiaries of honey bee Apis mellifera using RT-PCR. Detected RNA-containing bee viruses are transferred simultaneously with invasion of mite Varroa destructor and lead to mass bee mortality that results in economic losses in bee breeding. In samples of Varroa destructor, bee viruses DWV and ABPV were found. High degree of RNA-containing virus (BQCV, DWV SBV, ABPV, CBPV and KBV) infection was revealed: in the average, at least 50% for bee families with mite infection. In the bee families studied in this work, mixed infection with 2-6 viruses simultaneously was detected. Amplified fragments of viruses BQCV, DWV and SBV obtained using RT-PCR were sequenced and registered in Genbank.

Aim: Study of etiological structure of ARVI and evaluation of acute respiratory virus infection morbidity in 2010 - 2011 epidemic season taking into account the data of laboratory diagnostics by method of polymerase chain reaction with hybridization-fluorescent detection., Materials and Methods: By using reagent kits produced by Central Research Institute of Epidemiology for the detection of primary causative agents of influenza and ARVI 129 children and 94 adult patients monitored in an outpatient setting as well as 103 children hospitalized due to ARI were examined., Results: Etiological structure of ARVI was studied; proportion of influenza and other actual causative agents of ARVI in monthly dynamics were established. During epidemic rise of influenza (January-March 2011) the proportion of influenza A viruses was 24% (peak in January--31%), the proportion of influenza B viruses--5%, rhinoviruses--9%, metapneumovirus was detected in 6% of cases, parainfluenza viruses (1 - 4 type) and adenovirses--4% each, coronaviruses--in 3%, respiratory syncytial virus--in 2%, bocavirus--in 1% of the studied samples. In influenza structure A/H1N1pdm2009 virus, its proportion was 70%, influenza virus B (26.9%), influenza virus A/H3N2 (2.6%) predominated. Indexes for monthly morbidity caused by each of the ARVI causative agents were calculated., Conclusion: The proposed approach allowed to evaluate ARVI morbidity taking into account laboratory-confirmed etiological factors. A 5 time increase in ARI morbidity in adults in February 2011 was shown to be mostly due to an increase in influenza A morbidity as well as involvement of influenza B virus, metapneumoviruses, coronaviruses, parainfluenza viruses and rhinoviruses into the epidemic process. Increase of morbidity of children by 1.4 times was also seen during activization of influenza viruses and metapneumovirus. The analysis of monitoring results allowed to prognose increase of respiratory-syncytial viral infection epidemic activity from September 2011 to February 2012.

Article is based on published data and results of own original researches on development of chronic socially inportant virus infections. Special attention is paid to priority research direction--molecular-genetic markers of chronis virus infections predisposition, development of personalized therapy molecural basis and forecast of infect and man organism interrelation results.

The authors have studied the species-specific composition of major periodontopathogenic bacteria (P. gingivalis, P. intermedia, B. forsythus, A. actinomycetemcomitans, and T. denticola), by applying the Russian reagent kit developed and made by HPF "GENETECH", and some fungi, microorganisms, and viruses among the Moscow Region inhabitants with chronic generalized periodontitis in 2006-2008. The studies have shown it possible to use molecular genetic methods for diagnosis, drug therapy monitoring, and epidemiological studies in periodontology and implantology.

DNA glycosylases are enzymes that initiate base excision repair, a process of removal of damaged bases from the cellular DNA. Recent data show that variants of two human DNA glycosylases, MUTYH and OGG1, are associated with an increased risk of cancer. In addition, activities of various DNA glycosylases have been implicated in protection of humans from neurodegenerative diseases, immune disorders and viral infections. On the other hand, DNA glycosylases from pathogenic microorganisms help them to avoid the host defensive systems. Thus, DNA glycosylases represent both potential therapeutic agents and drug targets.

The first experience in introducing the nucleic acid amplification technique (NAT) in an Indian blood service as compared with the established European practice is analyzed. Examination of 12,224 donor blood samples revealed 217 (1.78%) persons with markers of infections, including 8 (0.065%) persons only with markers of viral genome, without serological signs of infections. In India, enzyme immunoassay-negative NAT-positive donations were tens of times more detectable than in the developed countries, which is associated with the epidemiological features and the large (more than 50%) proportion of paid donors. By taking into account the fact that 4.6% of the preserved blood doses are annually rejected as defective in the Russian Federation, as evidenced by the screening of markers of infections, the introduction of NAT may be expected to reveal a large proportion of donors in the period of both a "seronegative window" and chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus with its blood content. Both intralaboratory monitoring using the certified standards and the laboratory work quality system as a whole are a necessary condition for introducing NAT into a blood service.

RNA interference (RNAi) is among the most particular mechanisms of gene expression regulation. Besides, small interfering RNAs are significant players in cell defence either from viral infection or retrotransposons. Medical utilization of RNAi gives a handful of ways to cure viral and oncological illnesses. RNA interference, also, represents a useful tool for research, because it allows quick production of monogene functional knockouts. In this review we describe the most recent conceptions about RNAi mechanisms and actual approaches for it's usage.

Two hundred and ten newborns from among a high risk group were examined for intrauterine infections by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with the aim of assessing the clinical information density of the method in the diagnostic sphere. The patients were examined for the presence of DNA/RNA viruses and bacteria. Genetic samples of various causative agents were detected in 49% of the newborns. No correlation was established between the clinical pattern and the presence of DNA of certain microorganisms. The most severe condition of newborns was noted in cases when a DNA causative agent was found in several different biological samples. The highest mortality (in per cent) was registered in the group of newborns with detected DNA of Herpesviridae viruses. The PCR clinical value was affirmed for establishing a disease etiology in newborns.

The authors suggest a simple easily reproducible micromethod for determination of genetically determined activity of N-acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.5) and acetylator phenotype. The method consists in oral intake of sulfadimezine as an acetylation substrate, followed by measurement of the enzyme activity from the degree of sulfadimezine acetylation in blood or urine samples. Examinations of 121 children with acute respiratory viral infections (ARVI) and 36 healthy children have shown that children with a slow acetylation type are more liable to ARVI. This was confirmed by the fact that complicated ARVI forms in young children occurred as a rule only in 'slow acetylators', mostly in children with the lowest N-acetyltransferase activity.

The structure and composition of the nuclear skeleton (nuclear matrix) are considered. The literature data are referred to and the findings of the original author's research on the associations of the nuclear matrix with DNA, its involvement in the control of replication and transcription occurring on the nuclear matrix sites. Special attention is given to the protein composition of the nuclear matrix, and to its changes in tumour growth, virus infection, as well as during mitosis and embryonal development.

A study was made of the epidemiological peculiarities of viral respiratory infections of various etiology in the familial foci with the use of a methodical approach permitting to detect the true spread of infection in the familial foci, with consideration to the subclinical forme fruste of the disease and "carrier state". It appeared that in the familial foci the infectiousness of the majority of respiratory viral infections was greater than in the closed collective bodies uniting persons of the same age. The age composition of the family influences the manifestness (particularly in parainfluenza infection) and the intensity of the epidemic process characterized by the coefficient of the secondary affections. The type of the apartment, the floor on which it is located, and the number of persons residing in it had no significant influence on the spread of the viral infections in the familial foci. A definite role in this process is played by the level of specific serum antibodies in the members of the family surrounding the patient. The association of morbidity level with the antibody level proved to be the most distinct in children with influenza and adenoviral infection; this association was less significant in adults.

The author presents a classification and descriptions of various forms of pathology of mitosis. Changes in the mitotic regimen following administration of some drugs and under the effect of extreme factors are considered. Data on changes in the number and character of pathological mitoses in viral infection and radiation damage are discussed. Particular attention is given to the analysis of shifts in the mitotic regimen in various benign and malignant hyperplasia. It is shown that malignization (precancer and cancer of the larynx, endometrium, cervix uteri and stomach) is characterized by a rise of the mitotic activity, detection of division in metaphase and by a drastic increase in the number of pathological mitoses. These indices are used in the differential diagnosis of neoplastic processes and for early detection of possible malignization pf precancer hyperplasia.

The modern views on the organization and expression of single genes in eukaryotic cells, RNA structure and biosynthesis are reviewed. The problems of unstable gene localization ("mobile dispersed genetic elements") of some structural genes of cellular and viral origin are discussed. Peculiarities of transcription and processing of mRNA, pre-mRNA splicing are described. The information on the mechanisms of pre-mRNA splicing in normal and virus-infected eukaryotic cells, the role of low molecular nuclear RNA in the RNA splicing as signals for less than recognition greater than by specific nucleases and RNA synthetases are also regarded.

Serological examinations of blood sera from patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), their nearest relatives, and subjects of the control groups for antibodies to causative agents of some viral infections demonstrated antihemagglutinins to measles and rubella viruses in 61%-95.5% of the subjects examined in all the groups, to mumps virus in 53% in MS patients, to tick-borne encephalitis virus in 2.2% in the same group, and in 10.5% in the group of patients with other CNS diseases, and none in healthy subjects. Virus-neutralizing antibodies to human acute encephalomyelitis virus (HAEM) in 28% of the cases, frequently in the stage of remission. Specific IgM to measles virus was found in 41% of MS patients, in 15% of their nearest relatives, and in 19.7% of patients with other CNS diseases, but not in healthy subjects. No differences in the rate of antibody findings to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 were observed in the groups examined. The rate of detection of virus-neutralizing antibody to HAEM virus was significantly higher in MS patients with the severity of the course of IV-V degree (20%) than of the II-III degree (8.8%). In the period of MS exacerbation the level of specific IgM to measles virus increased (35.6%), and higher titres of antihemagglutinins were observed in patients with longer duration of the disease and higher degree of its severity.

Observations carried out during 1973-1979 indicate that persons, who are frequently ill, determine the incidence of influenza and acute respiratory diseases among various groups of adult population at all epidemic periods. In constantly observed groups of different ages such persons were the source of 60-85% of the outbreaks of acute respiratory diseases. The correlation between genotypic blood markers (the ABO and HLA systems) and susceptibility to respiratory viruses has been established.