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INTRODUCTION. This article examines the space laws adopted by Luxembourg in 2017 and 2020, which allow private persons, subject to the conditions provided by these laws, to explore and use the natural resources of celestial bodies. At the same time, the authors proposed an international legal assessment of these laws.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The study of the designated laws of Luxembourg is based on the scientific works of domestic and foreign specialists in international space law, especially in terms of the analysis of previously adopted national legislation on space activities. Both general scientific methods of cognition and methods of legal sciences, including formal-legal and comparative-legal, are used. RESEARCH RESULTS. The analysis of Luxembourg laws in the general context of applicable international law presented in the article shows that these laws have basically adopted the new US legal space policy, initially outlined in the US Commercial Space Launch Competition Act of 2015. At the same time, Luxembourg laws on space activities have proposed a number of legal mechanisms that differ from the US ones, which further exacerbates the interstate competition for a more favorable legal environment for private persons to invest in economic activities in space. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. International legal issues of the use of outer space, including those affecting the status of celestial bodies, have long been resolved at the universal level, primarily on the basis of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. The situation has changed with the involvement of the United States since 2020 of an increasing number of states in a separate treaty-legal regime of space activities created by the Artemis Agreements, concluded by the United States with more than 40 states. These agreements, in turn, adopted the basic provisions of the new US legislation on natural resource activities in space, starting with the aforementioned US Law of 2015. The basic “space” laws of Luxembourg - the Law on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources of 2017 (which established the national legislative basis for the commercial exploration and use of natural resources of celestial bodies) and the Law on Space Activities of 2020 (which clarified this legislative system), while creating a favorable environment for investments by individuals and legal entities of this state in the development of natural resources of celestial bodies, also have negative international legal consequences for the community of states: Luxembourg, with these laws, supported the separate policy of the United States aimed at revising universal international space law, according to which the use of outer space, including celestial bodies, constituting the “patrimony of all mankind”, “is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries” (Article I of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967).

Every human culture has reflected the Moon’s influence in its cosmology, spirituality, science, creative and social life. For these reasons, the exploration and use of the Moon should be done thoughtfully and carefully, and possible resource extraction should not harm the Earth's only satellite and its environment as a whole. The adoption by some States of national legislation affecting the commercial exploitation of space resources, as well as the resumption of lunar programs by several leading spacefaring nations at a time, prompt the need for legal regulation in this area. However, to develop a detailed international legal regime for lunar exploration, the efforts of the States parties to the UN COPUOS alone are not sufficient since in practice other actors in international relations, including the so-called epistemic communities representing various types of non-governmental organizations, are also active participants in space activities. Such communities offer their own vision of the international legal regulation of relations arising in the framework of the exploration and use of the Moon basing on the norms of international space law and involving active participation of non-governmental legal entities, considering the interests of present and future generations, as well as of emerging space nations. The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the influence of epistemic communities on the development of the future international legal regime for lunar exploration. The authors consistently review the activities of non-governmental organizations within the UN COPUOS since its formation. Special attention is paid to the contribution of such communities to the progressive development of international space law and its codification, including the legal nature of the documents developed by such communities. The study concludes with a comprehensive international legal assessment of the activities of the epistemic communities.

On April 14, 2018, the Department of International Law, Law Institute, RUDN University held the annual XVI Annual Blischenko Congress. The main work of the Blischenko Congress traditionally took place in sections focused on the main branches of international law. Co-organizers of the International Congress were international organizations, representative offices and departments. This research event was organized with grant support from: Russian Foundation for Basic Research; the grant of the President of the Russian Federation for the state support of young researches; grant of the Russian Science Foundation.

INTRODUCTION. More than fifty years ago, on October 10th, 1967, the entry into force of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (“the Outer Space Treaty”) demonstrated the emergence of a new branch of international law: international outer space law (“ISL”). This article considers the contribution of the Russian Federation / U.S.S.R. and the United States and their leading lawyers and diplomats who were able to reach treaty cooperation even during the Cold War, and highlights the main historical legal steps on the way to signing of the Outer Space Treaty. The paper further focuses on the content of the Outer Space Treaty and other sources of ISL, and depicts approaches to interpretation of the treaty provisions with respect to actual legal challenges of space activities’ development, in the context of diverse economic, political and technological factors; as well as on the role of the Outer Space Treaty in the progressive development of ISL. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The theoretical background of this research consists of works of distinguished scholars and specialists in ISL as well as materials of diverse colloquiums, workshops and conferences on ISL. The analytical framework includes the Outer Space Treaty, other relevant international treaties; relevant UN GA resolutions; the 2001 Cape Town Convention and the 2012 Space Protocol; UN, COPUOS (including its subcommittees), ITU and UNIDROIT documents; national space legislation; documents and proceedings of the UNISPACE-III. The research is based on methods such as historical research, formal logic, including analysis, synthesis, analogy and modeling, as well as systematic, comparative and interpretation. RESEARCH RESULTS. Within the context of applicable principles and norms of the Outer Space Treaty, this article specifically provides an analysis of the related provisions of other sources of ISL, as well as unsettled legal issues such as 1) the international legal regime of natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies; 2) the use of the outer space solely for peaceful purposes; 3) the legal status of space tourists; 4) the legal regulation of commercial space activities involving a “foreign element” within the framework of the private international law and specifically private international space law (“PISL”); 5) the role of the 2001 Cape Town Convention and the 2012 Space Protocol in the context of international legal regulation of space activities, as well as, provided the entry into force of the Space Protocol, its role as the first specific international legal source of PISL; 6) International system of registration of interests in space assets as the third international system of registration related to space activities; 7) interpretation of Art. VIII of the Outer Space Treaty for the purposes of definition of law applicable to property rights over space objects located in the outer space; 8) “space object” and “space asset” as legal terms; 9) issues of international responsibility and liability, as well as extension of the scope of the concept of the “launching State”, including a proposal on addition of a potential fifth category; 10) registration and control; 11) International Space Station in the relevant legal framework; 12) ways of reaching of due relevance of international legal consequences for states resulted from the change of private law relations to the factual “participation” of the involved states in the corresponding space activities. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. After discussing the issues noted above, this paper concludes that: 1) it is in the interest of the Russian Federation, the United States of America and other space powers to consider the role of the Outer Space Treaty as the basis for further progressive development of ISL and inter alia for orderly development of commercial space activities; 2) some burning issues of ISL, as well as other related legal challenges, can be resolved by an authentic interpretation of Outer Space Treaty provisions (e.g. by adding other specific protocols to it, or by means of a universal comprehensive convention on international space law); 3) it is important to take into account both the distinction of subject matter, as well as the relationship and interaction between diverse applicable sources and branches of international law and also relevant national legislation regarding the search for solutions of space related legal issues noted above. In sum, one needs to follow a comprehensive inclusive and coherent approach, involving science diplomacy.

Introduction. On 10 October 2017 the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty) celebrated fifty years from the day of its entry into force. In this same year, the world celebrates another memorable event – 60 years of the space era, which began with the successful launch of the first artificial Earth satellite. These dates once again reminded the global community that technological progress is inseparable from international law, as well as of the importance of the rule of law in such a unique sphere of human activity as outer space.Materials and methods. The materials for the article were the works of Russian and foreign researchers in the field of international space law as well as the main international treaties governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, Resolutions of the UN General Assembly, reports of the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. As for the methodology, the author opted to employ popular scientific research methods (including dialectics, analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, comparative legal and historical analysis).Research results. Over the past decades, the international space law (ISL) has changed, but the Outer Space Treaty, which established the basic principles of the exploration and use of outer space, remains a reliable foundation for the global space activities. With the development of private space activities specific separate states attempt to govern aspects of such activities at the national level bypassing the imperative requirements of the Outer Space Treaty. In this respect a problem of due and authentic interpretation of universal norms of the ISL is of particular relevance, which would correspond to the interests of all participants of space activities.Discussion and conclusions. In recent years the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN COPUOS) has heard statements that the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty are “obsolete” and “do not correspond to reality”. It seems possible to disagree with this characteristic. For half a century none of the basic principles established in the Treaty have been challenged, both States members to the Treaty (as of 10 October 2017, 106 states ratified the Treaty and another 24 signed it) and other countries that still have not joined it respect these basics and adhere to them. The Outer Space Treaty has fulfilled its aim: to preserve outer space peaceful, weapons-free and accessible for exploration and use by all states on the basis of equality and non-discrimination.

It is well known that the modern day technologies that drive our global society are highly dependent on the use of outer space. For example, daily activities such as sending emails, making phone calls and carrying out bank transactions cannot be done unless satellite technologies are involved. When you catch a plane, the air traffic control is dependent on GPS. Even natural disaster management is dependent on satellite imaging. Taking into account the importance of this, it becomes increasingly necessary to be knowledgeable in the field of international law as it is the only sphere of law that reaches beyond the physical boundaries of the Earth, goes deep into space and provides protection for today’s society. With new steps being taken to exploit further the potentials of outer space, and with increasing talk of new space missions and new discoveries, current international space law is being placed under scrutiny, for it should be remembered that the major international legal documents in this field were adopted in the middle of the 20th century, and thus there are fears that the law may have become obsolete, irrelevant in the face of new challenges in the use of outer space. This paper delivers an analysis of existing international space law and attempts to raise several crucial issues pertinent in the area.

[full article, abstract in English; abstract in Lithuanian] This article analyses the regulation of space activities, especially small satellites activities. Its purpose is to analyse the relevant international legal framework and discuss the possible future national space legislation in Lithuania. It has been divided into two chapters. Chapter 1 summarises the relevant international space law and addresses essential aspects related to the authorisation of space activities, registration of objects launched into outer space, liability issues, insurance requirements and debris mitigation issues. Chapter 2 deals with reasons to adopt the national space legislation in Lithuania and discusses what legal aspects should be covered by the national law in order to guarantee balance between the regulation and promotion of small satellite activities. Finally, it includes the Model Law on the Promotion of National Space Activities and the Establishment of a National Space Registry of the Republic of Lithuania.

More than 900 discovered near-earth objects (NEOs), which size exceeds 140 meters, are designated as potentially hazardous natural objects (PHNOs), in other words asteroids and comets which can be a threat to Planet Earth. Experts believe that the total amount of PHNOs consists of more than 6000 objects.The existing factors such as the active media coverage, the states’ and international organizations’ attention and the public interest provoke the urgency of the asteroid threat issue. Due to baffling complexity of this problem and expensiveness of projects considering its solution the goal of prevention of the asteroid threat can be accomplished only with the consolidated efforts of the whole international community.The article concentrates on the main directions of international cooperation in the sphere of the asteroid threat prevention. The international policy concerning the NEO hazard can be divided into four groups:detection, observation and exploration of NEOs;development and use of interception, deviation and destruction measures to the PHNOs;monitoring and warning of the PHNOs;informational and educational work.

The dynamic development of modern space activities pursues a primary goal which unifies all spacefaring states – which is stability and long-term sustainability of exploration and exploitation of outer space. In order to achieve the set goal the following conditions shall be met: general recognition and acceptability of and compliance by all space activity participants with international norms and principles pertaining to the conduct of space operations within the framework of current agreements, recommendations and initiatives. This approach, as well as the principles of its realization, could be reflected in the draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (CoC), an ambitious European project which is positioned as a quintessence of the modern international legal regime of the activities on the exploration and exploitation of outer space.

Commercialization of space activities is the main tendency of development of the world cosmonautics. With the growth of a global space market the interests of the private space sector come to the fore, which increases significantly a possibility of conflicts among all space actors: states, international organizations and commercial companies. Current nonbinding dispute resolution mechanisms, first of all diplomatic settlement, are not sufficient any longer to ensure safety, security and stability of space operations.This article analyses general and specific methods of settlement of disputes arising from the exploration and use of outer space, as well as prospects of enhancing the existing dispute resolution mechanisms in International Space Law.

Modern space activities are undergoing intensive commercialization. The widening of the private space sector, creation and implementation of advanced technologies in the space industry are stimulating competition growth in the world space market. Profit becomes the main purpose of the exploration and use of outer space.At the same time the dynamic development of private space activities, which leads to activation of commercial space launching and enlargement of non-governmental orbital satellite constellations, elevates the threat of dangerous approximation of spacecraft and even accidents in orbit thus posing a real danger not only to space equipment, but in the first place to lives and health of people – both in outer space and on the Earth.In the above circumstances the issue of sufficiency and effectiveness of International Space Law to ensure stability, safety and security of space operations, and first of all – of its international responsibility and liability mechanism as a cornerstone of International Space Law and an incentive for the enhancement of national space legislations, comes to the fore.

The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 27, which consists of the Scientific and Technical and the Legal Subcommittees, is the main international centre for the interaction of states and international organizations in the area of space. Current challenges of space operations commercialization on the one hand, security and long-term sustainability on the other have forced the Committee to reassess the traditional priorities of its activity.The present article considers the results of the latest session of the Legal Subcommittee of April 2013 and their influence on the establishment of a new political and legal regime of the global space activities.

Now, after fifty years of space exploration, the world is facing a new challenge – transition from scientific research to practical use of space for the benefit of humanity. To ensure transfer of perspective space technologies to the Earth economy space-faring nations are developing comprehensive regulatory frameworks for innovation-based development to ensure strong positions of national enterprises in world space markets.This article covers international law aspects and specific features of US and European space legislations on innovations. Legal mechanisms and strategies successfully applied in these regions can be a starting point for modernizing other world economies oriented to innovative development.