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Introduction: Monocytes play an important role in atherosclerotic progression having both pro and anti-inflammatory effects depending on different circulating monocyte subpopulations. The objective of this study is to characterize these subpopulations and their association with cardiovascular risk factors., Methods: Transversal study including 102 selected patients, mean age: 65 years-old (range 41-86), 69% males. A set of specific antibodies against classical monocytes (Mon1, CD14+CD16- CD300e+HLADR+), intermediate (Mon2, CD14+CD16+CD300e+HLADR+) and non-classical (Mon3, CD14-CD16+CD300e+HLADR+) was assayed. Three groups of patients were included: 17 asymptomatic with more than one cardiovascular risk factor (group 1), 56 subjects asymptomatic but with vascular pathology assessed by ultrasound or microalbuminuria (group 2) and 19 patients with a previous atherothrombotic event (group 3). The cardiovascular risk was determined by Framingham and REGICOR scores., Results: An association between study groups and the percentage of Mon1 and Mon2 was observed (ANOVA, p<.05), being independent of age and sex for Mon2. Likewise Mon1 and Mon2 subpopulations were associated with cardiovascular adverse events (β=0.86, p=.02 y β=0.1 p=.002, respectively), independently of age and sex in the case of Mon2. Moreover the percentage of Mon3 was associated with the presence of several cardiovascular risk factors (β=0.21, p=.04) in the univariate analysis. In addition, there was a correlation between the levels of Mon1 and Mon2 and leukocytes (r=0.7, p<.001 and r=0.26, p=.01, respectively)., Conclusions: The analysis of monocyte subpopulations may be clinically useful to stratify the inflammatory profile related to the different cardiovascular risk groups., (Copyright © 2019 Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Infective endocarditis (IE) is a serious condition with a poor prognosis, its mortality unchanged significantly despite diagnostic and therapeutic advances in the last 30years. The diagnostic ability of the modified Duke criteria in prosthetic endocarditis and/or devices does not exceed 50%, so new tools are necessary for the diagnosis of this entity in this context. The 18 F-FDG PET/CTA combines a highly sensitive technique to detect inflammatory-infectious activity with a technique with high anatomical resolution to assess the structural lesions associated with endocarditis. With a diagnostic sensitivity between 91-97%, this hybrid technique has become a useful diagnostic tool for patients with prosthetic valves or devices and suspicion of IE, becoming a major criterion in the diagnostic algorithm of current guidelines. This excellent diagnostic ability depends directly on the quality of the obtained exploration and the knowledge at the time of interpreting the images. The aim of this review is to describe and standardize the methodology of cardiac 18 F-FDG PET/CTA in the diagnosis of endocarditis in prosthetic valves and intracardiac devices, with special emphasis on the particularities of the patient's preparation, the PET and CT acquisition procedures, and the subsequent imaging postprocessing and interpretation., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier España, S.L.U. y SEMNIM. All rights reserved.)

Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating inflammatory disease that affects the central nervous system. Its etiology is the result of a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors that trigger a deregulated immune response, with the resulting inflammation and neuronal/axonal degeneration. Neuroinflammation is triggered when peripheral leukocytes migrate to the central nervous system and release cytokines such as interleukins 1 and 6 (IL-1 and 6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which act on dwelling cells. The innate immune system plays an important role in the onset and progression of the disease by identifying molecular patterns associated with pathogens and damage, which modulate effector and regulatory functions of the cells where they are expressed, in order to direct the specific immune response. Th17 cells favor the disruption of the blood-brain barrier, which enables the migration of leukocytes to the central nervous system and the triggering of the inflammatory cascade; the Th1 profile (IL-1, IL-6) collaborates to perpetuate it. B-cell function is to produce antibodies and cytokines (IL-6, IL-12 and TFN). Knowledge on multiple sclerosis pathophysiology will enable the development of new therapeutic options that impact on natural history of the disease and its prognosis., (Copyright: © 2018 SecretarÍa de Salud.)

Background: It has been shown that the TREM-1 glycoprotein belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily that induces secretion of various proinflammatory cytokines. The aim of this study was to measure the expression of TREM-1 in patients with cervical cancer., Methods: In this cross-sectional study we included four groups of patients: GI: women with low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (IL) (n = 15 p / g); GII: patients with high-grade squamous IL (n = 9 w / g); GIII: patients with invasive cervical cancer (n = 9 p / g) and GIV: healthy patients (n = 15 p / g). In all patients the expression of TREM-1 and the Average Fluorescence Index (AFI) in neutrophils and monocytes were measured, as well as levels of leukocytes, neutrophils and monocytes. We used Student's t test for independent samples. For these variables, we applied Mann-Whitney rank-sum, ANOVA, and Tukey tests. Chi square test was used for qualitative variables., Results: The percentages of TREM-1 expression in neutrophils and monocytes, plus the AFI in neutrophils in the 4 groups was not significantly different. The AFI of TREM-1 in monocytes was significantly different when comparing group II and group III versus group IV (p < 0.02). There was also no significant difference when comparing the mean values of leukocytes, neutrophils and monocytes in the different groups., Conclusion: This study shows increased expression of TREM-1 in monocytes from patients with advanced cancer.

Background: The human labor is an inflammatory process invading leukocytes modulated by gestational tissues. The local increase of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) promotes the permanence of these leukocytes in the coriodecidua. Gestational tissues express ICAM-1, while circulating leukocytes expressing its ligand Mac-1., Objective: To analyze, first, if the expression of CAMs in the fetal membranes is associated with progress of gestational age, and second, the expression of CAMs on circulating leukocytes in the uterus (placenta)., Material and Method: original and closed study conducted at the Instituto Nacional de Perinatologia Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes (Mexico City). We included samples from healthy women between 15 and 44 years of age with term pregnancies (> or =37 weeks gestation)., Results: Real time PCR analysis showed that the expression of CAMs in the fetal membranes remained constant before labor. ICAM3 and ICAM1 tended to increase during labor, while ICAM2, VCAM1, SELE and SELP decrease with advancing gestational age. Placental leukocytes showed a clear increase in the expression of ITGAM (Mac-1) during labor., Conclusions: These results show that the maternal-fetal interface expresses a specific combination of CAMs during labor, including ICAM1, ICAM-3 and Mac-1. The expression of these molecules could promote the retention of leukocytes in the local tissues to modulate the local inflammatory microenvironment during human labor.

Objective: There is disagreement regarding the local action of cytokines in the respiratory muscles of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The objective of this study was to analyze the relationships between cytokine expression and genetic activation of the mechanisms of muscle repair., Patients and Methods: Twenty-five patients with severe COPD and in stable condition were enrolled in the study. We performed a biopsy of the external intercostal muscle of the patients and analyzed the specimen for signs of muscle lesion (morphometry), infiltration of inflammatory cells (immunohistochemistry), and expression of selected genes (real-time polymerase chain reaction technique) corresponding to the cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-alpha] and its type 1 and 2 receptors [TNFR1 and TNFR2], and interleukin [IL] 1beta, IL-6, and IL-10), a pan-leukocyte marker (CD18), and key molecules in the repair-myogenesis pathways (Pax7, M-cadherin, and MyoD)., Results: Expression of TNFR2 is directly related to inspiratory muscle function (represented by maximum sustainable inspiratory pressure; r=0.496; P<.05), whereas expression of CD18 is inversely related (r=0.462; P<.05). Moreover, expression of the 2 TNF-alpha receptors was directly related to that of the key molecules of the repair pathways analyzed (TNFR1 to Pax7 [r=0.650; P<.001] and M-cadherin [r=0.678; P<.001]; TNFR2 to Pax7 [r=0.395; P<.05], M-cadherin [r=0.409; P<.05], and MyoD [r=0.418; P<.05])., Conclusions: Expression of TNF-alpha receptors bears a close relationship both to activation of the myogenesis programs and to inspiratory muscle function. This reinforces our hypothesis that some local cytokines take part in the repair of respiratory muscles in patients with COPD.

Objective: Determine the dose of Vitamin C able to maintain a leukocyte Vitamin C concentration of > or =18 microg/10(8) cells, in pregnant women with 28 to 32 weeks of gestation, in order to compile a database to estimate the daily recommended intake (DRI) during pregnancy., Methodology: Stage 1: acute supplementation study. A group of 10 healthy women in late first and early second trimester pregnancy were supplemented with 0 to 200 mg vitamin C/day during one week each. Stage 2: a randomized double blind study (placebo vs. vitamin C [100 mg/d]) was carried out with 52 women studied from week 20 to week 32 of pregnancy. Their plasma and leukocyte vitamin C concentrations were measured every 4 weeks to evaluate the previously established supplementation dose., Results: Stage 1: with the 100 mg/day dose, leukocyte vitamin C saturation was reached without increasing urinary excretion. Stage 2: leukocyte concentration of vitamin C decreased throughout pregnancy in women receiving placebo, while supplemented women maintained their concentrations > or =18 microg/10(8) cells., Conclusion: A 100 mg/day dose of vitamin C during the second half of pregnancy keeps leukocyte storage and could be useful to establish the DRI of Vitamin C during pregnancy.

Prolactin (PRL) is a 23 kDa protein hormone that is produced and secreted by the pituitary lactotrophs. Although PRL was initially regarded as an exclusive pituitary hormone, many nonpituitary tissues were later found to contain and produce this hormone. The most established extrapituitary sites that produce PRL are the decidua, the immune system, brain and endometrium. In the immune system, PRL acts as a cytokine where it plays an important role in human immune responses, including in autoimmune diseases. Here, we will discuss the regulation of PRL gene expression in human lymphocytes and review the functions of PRL made by the immune cells, including its involvement in autoimmunity.

Introduction: Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the commonest cause of hereditary mental retardation. Although most affected patients, especially males, have a typical phenotype, molecular studies of the FMR1 gene are necessary to confirm the diagnosis, depending on the number of repeats of the CGG triplet of the gene., Development: In recent years an immunohistochemical technique has been developed which permits the study of the expression of the protein codified by the FMR1 gene, known as FMRP (Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein). This was done initially in peripheral blood lymphocytes and more recently in hair roots, thus permitting definite identification of males affected by FXS. The advantages of this technique compared with conventional molecular studies are speed (results available in a few hours), lower cost and ease of sample obtention, that in the case of hair roots is non-invasive. The affected males had significant lower levels of FMRP expression than normal or non fragile X males, without overlapping. This finding was observed in blood and hair roots. In females, interpretation is more difficult due to random inactivation of one of the X chromosomes. However, preliminary studies have shown that the level of FMRP expression in hair roots of females with the full mutation (usually with some degree of mental retardation) is significantly lower when compared to premutation carriers or normal females., Conclusion: The FMRP test, either in blood or hair, is an easy, cost-effective method for screening FXS in males with idiopathic mental retardation.

Background: To evaluate differences in the temporal profile of acute phase response (APR) between ischemic stroke (IS) and intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)., Patients and Method: We studied APR parameters (< 24 h and 3-5 day) in 88 consecutive patients (43 ICH and 45 IS). The increase/decrease of the parameters between both dates was analyzed., Results: Leukocyte increase (LI) and fibrinogen increase (FI) is significantly higher in ICH than in IS (p = 0.047 and p = 0.035)., Conclusions: APR temporal profile is different for ICH and IS.

The steroid hormone are very versatile molecules: although they are related among them by their chemical structure, they have very diverse functions and including antagonic. Their action mechanism is not completely cleared. The estrogens participate in the regulation of practically all the reproductive and sexual events of the female, although the intracellular actions by which they take place are not well known and the proposed models do not adequately satisfy the questions. Currently it is accepted the existence of a cytoplasmic and/or nuclear receptor, without explaining satisfactorily how the hormones come to the nucleus. The endocrine events that are rapidly expressed (seconds) are due to a possible interaction with cellular membrane. The purpose of this review is to analyze and concilliate the reported data on the mechanism of action of estrogens.

The cytokines are proteins synthetized by lymphoid and monocyte/macrophage system cells in response to a wide variety of infectious stimulus, featuring bacterial endotoxins. These proteins have immunoregulatory effects and have been implicated in inflammation and fibrosis. In this review we refer to the interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor because of their elevated basal levels in acute and chronic hepatopaties and in response to lipopolisacharide mainly in alcoholic liver disease.

Erythrocyte participation in the transfer and exchange of amino acids with tissues has been recently demonstrated. In this study, we show changes in erythrocytes, leukocytes and plasma free amino acid content, from peripheral blood in a group of 10 women after 25 weeks of gestation. Also tryptophan determinations in plasma and erythrocytes were made by fluorometric methods. During pregnancy, eleven of the 21 plasma amino acids studied are significantly different and the essential/nonessential ratio is not modified, although the total content diminished significantly. Conversely, in erythrocytes and leukocytes results indicate increase a in 2 and 3 fold respectively, in contents of aminoacid during gestation. The essential/nonessential ratio increases in the erythrocyte; In the essentials amino acids threonine, isoleucine and histidine show a greater increase. In leukocytes, the essential/nonessential ratio decreases during gestation due to a great increase of nonessentials, nevertheless, threonine, valine, methionine and leucine also show values significantly higher values during pregnancy. When amino acid content is calculated by mg of protein we see a certain increase in plasma, not significant, during pregnancy; in leukocytes, this increase corresponds almost to 90 per-cent with respect to the control group.

Alcohol causes different hematologic alterations on each of the three bone marrow cellular series. Its effect on the red series leads to the appearance of megaloblastic disturbances, erythroblastic vacuolization, iron metabolism abnormalities, and hemolytic syndromes. Megaloblastic disturbances may arise as a consequence of folic acid or vitamin B12 deficiency or of a direct toxic effect of ethanol on the erythroblasts. Iron metabolism alterations include reversible sideroblastic anemia, and hemosiderosis. The three hemolytic syndromes related to the consumption of ethanol are: acanthocytosis, stomatocytosis, and Zieve's syndrome. Alcohol induces leukopenia and functional deffects of the leukocytes; these facts explain the frequent susceptibility of chronic alcoholics to infection. Ethanol may act upon the megakaryocytic series to produce reversible thrombopenia and various alterations in platelet function. Thus alcohol exerts toxic effects on bone marrow, which interfere with the proliferation, maturation, release and survival of the three cellular series, either directly or by means of complex mechanisms related to the metabolism of folic acid, vitamin B12, pyridoxine, or iron. Alcoholism should therefore be considered as a possible cause whenever an obscure hematological condition comes under scrutiny.

The basal and stimulated metabolism of leukocytes obtained from fetally malnourished and normal children was comparatively studied. All basal activities of the leukocytes from malnourished children were significantly lower than those observed in normal children: Glucose-6-P-deydrogenase activity was 1.04 +/- 0.12 against 1.27 +/- 0.22 mumoles/min/10(8) cells; leukocyte-oxidase activity was 0.19 +/- 0.03 against 0.31 +/- 0.05 OD units/15 min/2.5 x 10(6) cells, oxygen uptake was 384 +/- 48 against 728 +/- 103 nmoles 0(2)/hr/10(8) cells. The conversion of glucose -1(14)C to 14CO2 was 83 +/- 10 nmoles/10(8) cells in malnourished children and 134 +/- 22 in controls. The response of all the parameters studied to the stimulation of phagocytosis was also significantly lower in fetally malnourished than in control babies.

Changes of energy metabolism in leucocytes have been studied longitudinally as well as cross-sectionally in three groups of children born: 1.- at term, with normal weight; 2.- with intra-uterine malnutrition; 3.- prematurely. The longitudinal study showed that, at birth, the activity of adenylate kinase as well as concentrations of ATP, ADP AND AMP were significantly lower in the malnourished than in the normal child. At one year of age, the values of enzyme activity are approximately equal in both groups, while the concentrations, of ATP and ADP are higher in malnourished children. Finally, at two years of age all values found, with the exception of AMP concentration, were higher in malnourished than in normal children born at term. In the data of the cross-sectional study this accelerated biochemical maturation is also shown.