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Ketamine, also known as 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-(methylamino)-cyclohexanone, is a dissociative anesthetic that has gained popularity as a recreational substance among young people, especially in nightclubs and at parties. It acts as a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, inducing a dissociative state that manifests as catalepsy, unconsciousness and amnesia. Recreational use of ketamine and the number of illicit seizures of ketamine have increased in recent years, prompting a review of current evidence on its toxicity. Recreational ketamine use is associated with a number of toxic effects, both acute and chronic. Predominant among the acute effects are psychotic symptoms, hallucinations and aggression, which can lead to serious injuries. Chronic ketamine use leads to intractable urological problems and neuropsychiatric problems, Long-term effects also include gastrointestinal problems such as abdominal pain and liver function abnormalities. This review summarizes current evidences on the acute and chronic ketamine toxicity associated with its recreational use.

Gallbladder disease is a common condition in the population that has a negative impact on quality of life. The development of gallstones is influenced by both non-modifiable factors such as genetics, age, gender and modifiable risk factors including physical activity, body weight, diet. Dietary factors affecting the occurrence of the disease are difficult to capture in clinical studies, but the effect of certain substances on the development of gallstones has been proven. Positive risk factors include a high-calorie diet, obesity, increased intake of carbohydrates, saturated fatty acids, small amounts of fiber ingested. Moderate alcohol consumption reduces the risk of gallstones. Coffee may reduce the risk of the disease, but results are inconclusive. Inverse risk factors include consumption of monounsaturated fatty acids, consumption of nuts, olive oil, n-3 PUFA found in fish oil, vitamin C supplementation. No clear effect of consuming large amounts of dietary cholesterol can be established. The type of protein consumed also matters - vegetable protein reduces the risk of gallstones, animal protein has no such effect. Better understanding of dietary risks of cholelithiasis may help in future disease prevention.

A popularity of marathons and ultramarathons is growing every year. Attending a marathon can cause a variety of biochemical changes. It is crucial to determine which changes in blood tests are of clinical significance, and what recommendations should be given to the patient. Here the most frequent changes are presented, as described in literature.

Hypermobility is defined as ability to actively or passively perform a move, which exceed the norm for range of movement for each joint. In any case of hypermobility it is crucial to determine if it is a sign of pathological process. Join hypermobility is a frequent abnormality in a general population and may be caused by a numerous genetic disorders. The aim of this paper is to compare the most important diseases which may manifest in generalized joint hypermobility. This study include available knowledge about hypermobility in particular diseases and syndromes which are: Joint Hypermobility Syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Hypermobility Type, Marfan Syndrome, Loeys - Dietz Syndrome, Down Syndrome, Fragile X Sydrome.

Introduction: Human body posture is an individual feature influenced by environmental conditions and the type of performed work. The curvatures change with age, quality and style of life. Civilizational development has led to a sedentary lifestyle, which has an influence on postural defects formation. The aim of this study was to verify the effect of length of time for taxi drivers on spine curvature formation compared to people who adopt a sitting position. Materials and methods: The study comprised 60 subjects: 30 controls and 30 study subjects (taxi drivers), all with work history longer than 10 years. Triplicate measurements of spinal curvatures were taken using the Rippstein Plurimeter in a relaxed position, and results were saved according to the SFTR system. In addition, body height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI). Results: The average work time in the examined group was 57.7 and the control group 6.8 hours per week. The mean values of thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis in the examined group were 36.3 and 17.9 degrees, respectively, versus 30.3 and 20.8 in the control group. Age and length of service had an impact on the shaping of the spinal curvatures. Greater value of BMI was associated with deeper thoracic kyphosis, but not with shallower lumbar lordosis. Conclusions: Adverse changes in shaping spinal curvatures progress with increasing age and length of the employment performed in the sitting position. Body mass index and body weight above the normal level contribute to deepening thoracic kyphosis.

Supportive activities may be one of the ways of the training process optimization. Support involves both components of the training process, i.e. training and rest. The training support is aimed at the training load increase or at such orientation of the adaptation processes to meet the training goals as closely as possible. The different aims lay behind the methods that support the rest mechanisms. It is about increasing the peace of the regeneration and recovery processes. This term describes all activities aimed at restoring the full exercise capacity of the athlete after work. The psychological support of the training process can be one of the ways to minimize training disturbances and it should therefore be an essential part of the training process management in case of the top ranked athletes. To improve the psychological support system of the training process and to improve the system quality, it is necessary to analyze the current situation. That’s why, authors of the paper decided to ask the members of the Polish Olympic team competed at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro on types of relaxation techniques they accepted and used before the competition. The relaxation techniques were deliberately limited to the pre-start relaxation techniques as the study was treated as a pilot study dedicated to the problem identification. Therefore, the authors of the paper formulated its aim, as the identification of the pre-start relaxation preferences of the Olympic team members. The following research questions were formulated to meet the aim of the study: • What types of the pre-start relaxation techniques are declared and accepted by the Olympians? • Could the preferred pre-start relaxation techniques be considered rational, planned, and consciously implemented? A written interview with an online questionnaire was used as a research method. The study was conducted before the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, among the representatives of Poland qualified for the Games. The questionnaire consisted of demographics and 10 questions answered by the respondents in accordance with the scale: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neither agree nor disagree, Agree, and Strongly agree. The survey was voluntary and completely anonymous. The study involved 54 participants of the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro. 25 of them were men, and 29 were women. The 43 athletes had the International Champion title, while the remaining 11 athletic had the Champion title. The average age of the respondents was 27 years and 5 months (min 19 years, max 38 years), and the training period amounted to 13 years and 5 months on average (minimum 5 years, maximum 24 years). The research results show the following: • Most of the investigated Olympians know and apply visualization training as a pre-start relaxation technique, • Over 70% of them accept and apply music during pre-start relaxation, • The Olympians are very appreciative of meeting friends before the start, • As many as 70% of respondents do not accept or use computer games, • The subjects use also physiotherapy as a relaxation technique, • Three people admitted they accept alcohol as a pre-start relaxation technique. Generally speaking, preferred behaviors seem to be accidental, unplanned, and uncontrolled. Therefore, it is recommended that both the pre-start relaxation and all psychological support activities are strictly planned in accordance with executed training objectives, accurately implemented throughout the training cycle, and controlled, as in case of training loads.