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The banana cultivation is especially important for the economy of Ecuador. Black Sigatoka in bananas is a disease caused by a fungus, which attacks the foliate system. When Black Sigatoka is not adequately controlled, the plants could suffer serious damages for themselves and their growth. To analyze the cost necessary to Black Sigatoka control, we gathered information about the banana production and the number of times that fungicides were applied. In the present paper we study the efficiency of the banana production, once they were fumigated after an infection by this fungus. Here it is considered that more efficient is banana production, when bigger is this fruit production, smaller is the quantity of resources used and smaller are the unwanted consequences. To calculate such efficiency and shadow prices we applied a mathematical method designed by R. Färe and based on a distance and Linear Programming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limited resources assignation is fundamental in the development of health services and since they will never be enough, justice issues arise. Many distributive justice theories are discussed: liberal, equilable and utilitarian, as well as ethic principles and cost-benefit relation, that is, the consequences. Palliative medicine is suggested as a strategy to reduce the cost of hospitable care and to enhance its designation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimates the economic costs of mining pollution on water resources for the years 2008 and 2009 based on the conceptual framework of Environmental Efficiency. This framework identifies such costs as the mining companies' trade-off between increasing production that is saleable at market prices (desirable output) and reducing the environmental pollution that emerges from the production process (undesirable output). These economic costs were calculated from parametric and nonparametric production possibility frontiers for 28 and 37 mining units in 2008 and 2009, respectively, which were under the purview of the National Campaign for Environmental Monitoring of Effluent and Water Resources, conducted by the Energy and Mining Investment Supervisory Agency (Osinergmin) in those years. The results show that the economic cost of mining pollution on water resources rose to U.S. $ 814.7 million and U.S. $ 448.8 million for 2008 and 2009, respectively. These economic costs were highly concentrated in a few mining units, within a few pollution parameters, and were also higher in mining units with average/low mineral production. Taking into consideration that at present the fine and penalty system in the mining sector is based on administrative criteria, this study proposes a System of Environmentally Efficient Sanctions based on economic criteria so as to establish a preventive mechanism for pollution. It is hoped that this mechanism will generate the necessary incentives for mining companies to address the negative externalities that emerge from their production process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]