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Biofuels are a viable alternative to the partial or total replacement of fossil fuels, biodiesel is an ideal substitute for diesel as it can be used without modifying existing engines and offers a safe distribution process. In this review, the raw materials used in recent years for their production by the transesterification method are summarized, as well as the effect that the operating conditions have on the reaction yield, in addition to integrating the reaction mechanisms with base catalysis, acid and the heterogeneous catalyst CaO. Transesterification has been studied and modified, from the conventional process to the application of ultrasound, in supercritical conditions and in situ. The ideal process will depend on the available raw materials and equipment, using the least amount of energy, time and inputs, one of the most promising is transesterification with ultrasound and heterogeneous catalyst. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Linton found out that the dipole moment of pyridine N-oxide is appreciably smaller than the expected theoretical value. Thus, he postulated the contribution of three 'excited structures', with a negative electric charge at the 2-, 4- and 6-position. However, a typical electrophilic substitution such as nitration, afforded only the 4-nitro derivative. This discrepancy between theory and experiment prompted us to study the pyridine N-oxide physical properties, since its reactivity is derived from them. Besides, these negative charged rings require an unexpected polarization and a reaction mechanism must be provided. We propose intermolecular induced polarization as a viable path. We uncovered that only one of the three structures before mentioned is supported by the observed reactivity and by l3C nuclear magnetic resonance data. On rejecting 2 of the Linton's 'excited structures', we have explained the regioselectivity found in pyridine N-oxide nitration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The different isomer yields observed in many aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions can be explained by steric hindrance. However, this is not the case when there are drastic differences in the reaction yields of the isomeric products obtained. This is generally due to the presence of other factors, for instance, electric rejection between two positive charges in the reaction stage. Thus, a very important point to bear in mind is electric hindrance, a new theoretical concept. We have taken as an example 2-aminopyridine nitration. We provide an extended theory on this subject, which is in accordance with the observed regiochemistry and with the reaction yields of the isomeric products obtained. Dipole moments were also taken into account. We discuss too the 2-nitraminopyridine rearrangement in acidic medium. The theoretical discussion is also in agreement with reported trans-nitration experimental results. Our proposals were also contrasted with the findings from thermolysis and photolysis carried out with 2- nitraminopyridine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]