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Vitamin D is one of the oldest hormones affecting individuals of all ages. The major cause of vitamin D deficiency is lack of sun exposure. It was reported that the efficiency of vitamin D is not limited only to maintaining bone health by managing the calcium homeostasis; it also seems to have anti-inflammatory, immune-modulating and pro-apoptotic properties. Vitamin D has specific receptors in many tissue and organs such as the skin, immune system, pancreas, gonads, brain, prostate, breast, muscle, and large intestine, etc. Recent epidemiological studies have reported that low vitamin D levels are associated with increased cardiovascular mortality, cancer incidence and autoimmune diseases such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis. The 25 hydroxy vitamin D (25 (OH) D) level should be determined in a patient with suspected vitamin D deficiency. Deficiency is defined as a serum 25 (OH) D level below 15 ng/ml, and insufficiency is defined as a serum 25 (OH) D level of 15 to 20 ng/ml. To prevent vitamin D deficiency, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that infants and children receive 400 IU of vitamin D from diet and supplementation. It has been reported that vitamin D up to 2000 U per day does not cause vitamin D intoxication in adult and childhood age groups According to a report published by the American Medical Institute, when determining tolerable upper limits, oral maintenance doses causing no hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria or ectopic calcification should be taken into account. Therefore, the administration of vitamin D has been reported to be safe at 1000 lU/day for ages 0-1, 2500 IU/day for ages 1-3, 3000 IU/day for ages 3-8, and 4000 IU/day for persons 9 years of age, adults and pregnant women. In adults, vitamin D supplementation of at least 800-1000 U was recommended to reduce fracture and fall rates. In this paper, we review the non-skeletal effect of vitamin D in light of the recent studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitamin D plays a central role in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, and it is essential for the proper development and maintenance of bone. Recent studies show that vitamin D is effective for different tissue functions in addition to bone metabolism. The study group was comprised of 101 healthy newborn infants with a gestational age of 38 weeks or more. Umbilical cord 25 (OH) D levels were measured. Newborns were divided into two groups according to the 25(OH) D levels (<12 ng/ml and >12 ng/ml). Thirty-one percent of these newborn infants had severe deficiency. There were no differences between the groups according to the mother's education, clothing style, home condition, profession, gestational age, vitamin D supplementation, newborn's gender, and birth weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lead is a toxic metal, and is still present in our environment - in water, soil, and imported products manufactured with lead. Lead intoxication is the foremost environmental health threat to children in the world. Children are far more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than adults because they absorb a higher fraction of lead and have a developing system of cell differentiation and growth that is more vulnerable to inhibition and damage. However, it has also been indicated that low-level exposures of lead result in cognitive dysfunction, neurobehavioral disorders, neurological damage, hypertension, and renal impairment. A common factor in the mechanism of all lead toxicities is oxidative damage. It increases production of free radicals and decreases availability of antioxidant reserves to respond to the resultant damage. The pathogenesis of lead toxicity is multifactorial, as interrupting enzyme activation, inhibiting trace mineral absorption, binding to sulfhydryl proteins, altering calcium homeostasis, and lowering the level of available sulfhydryl antioxidant reserves in the body. Calcium disodium EDTA and DMSA have been used as chelative agents for lead abatement in both adults and children. While chelation is the conventional recommendation for acute lead toxicity, chronic exposure is still under investigation. In addition to appropriate treatment for toxic metal exposure and accumulation, it is also important to minimize the effects of the metal. In this article, the role of antioxidants in the treatment of lead-related pathologies will be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]