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IntroductionEarly recognition and appropriate management of paediatric sepsis are known to improve outcomes. A previous system’s biology investigation of the systemic immune response in neonates to sepsis identified immune and metabolic markers that showed high accuracy for detecting bacterial infection. Further gene expression markers have also been reported previously in the paediatric age group for discriminating sepsis from control cases. More recently, specific gene signatures were identified to discriminate between COVID-19 and its associated inflammatory sequelae. Through the current prospective cohort study, we aim to evaluate immune and metabolic blood markers which discriminate between sepses (including COVID-19) from other acute illnesses in critically unwell children and young persons, up to 18 years of age.Methods and analysisWe describe a prospective cohort study for comparing the immune and metabolic whole-blood markers in patients with sepsis, COVID-19 and other illnesses. Clinical phenotyping and blood culture test results will provide a reference standard to evaluate the performance of blood markers from the research sample analysis. Serial sampling of whole blood (50 μL each) will be collected from children admitted to intensive care and with an acute illness to follow time dependent changes in biomarkers. An integrated lipidomics and RNASeq transcriptomics analyses will be conducted to evaluate immune-metabolic networks that discriminate sepsis and COVID-19 from other acute illnesses. This study received approval for deferred consent.Ethics and disseminationThe study has received research ethics committee approval from the Yorkshire and Humber Leeds West Research Ethics Committee 2 (reference 20/YH/0214; IRAS reference 250612). Submission of study results for publication will involve making available all anonymised primary and processed data on public repository sites.Trial registration numberNCT04904523.

IntroductionMaternal sepsis remains a leading cause of death in pregnancy. Physiological adaptations to pregnancy obscure early signs of sepsis and can result in delays in recognition and treatment. Identifying biomarkers that can reliably diagnose sepsis will reduce morbidity and mortality and antibiotic overuse. We have previously identified an immune-metabolic biomarker network comprising three pathways with a >99% accuracy for detecting bacterial neonatal sepsis. In this prospective study, we will describe physiological parameters and novel biomarkers in two cohorts—healthy pregnant women and pregnant women with suspected sepsis—with the aim of mapping pathophysiological drivers and evaluating predictive biomarkers for diagnosing maternal sepsis.Methods and analysisWomen aged over 18 with an ultrasound-confirmed pregnancy will be recruited to a pilot and two main study cohorts. The pilot will involve blood sample collection from 30 pregnant women undergoing an elective caesarean section. Cohort A will follow 100 healthy pregnant women throughout their pregnancy journey, with collection of blood samples from participants at routine time points in their pregnancy: week 12 ‘booking’, week 28 and during labour. Cohort B will follow 100 pregnant women who present with suspected sepsis in pregnancy or labour and will have at least two blood samples taken during their care pathway. Study blood samples will be collected during routine clinical blood sampling. Detailed medical history and physiological parameters at the time of blood sampling will be recorded, along with the results of routine biochemical tests, including C reactive protein, lactate and white blood cell count. In addition, study blood samples will be processed and analysed for transcriptomic, lipidomic and metabolomic analyses and both qualitative and functional immunophenotyping.Ethics and disseminationEthical approval has been obtained from the Wales Research Ethics Committee 2 (SPON1752-19, 30 October 2019).Trial registration numberNCT05023954.

Immediately after birth, newborn babies experience rapid colonization by microorganisms from their mothers and the surrounding environment1. Diseases in childhood and later in life are potentially mediated by the perturbation of the colonization of the infant gut microbiota2. However, the effects of delivery via caesarean section on the earliest stages of the acquisition and development of the gut microbiota, during the neonatal period (≤1 month), remain controversial3,4. Here we report the disrupted transmission of maternal Bacteroides strains, and high-level colonization by opportunistic pathogens associated with the hospital environment (including Enterococcus, Enterobacter and Klebsiella species), in babies delivered by caesarean section. These effects were also seen, to a lesser extent, in vaginally delivered babies whose mothers underwent antibiotic prophylaxis and in babies who were not breastfed during the neonatal period. We applied longitudinal sampling and whole-genome shotgun metagenomic analysis to 1,679 gut microbiota samples (taken at several time points during the neonatal period, and in infancy) from 596 full-term babies born in UK hospitals; for a subset of these babies, we collected additional matched samples from mothers (175 mothers paired with 178 babies). This analysis demonstrates that the mode of delivery is a significant factor that affects the composition of the gut microbiota throughout the neonatal period, and into infancy. Matched large-scale culturing and whole-genome sequencing of over 800 bacterial strains from these babies identified virulence factors and clinically relevant antimicrobial resistance in opportunistic pathogens that may predispose individuals to opportunistic infections. Our findings highlight the critical role of the local environment in establishing the gut microbiota in very early life, and identify colonization with antimicrobial-resistance-containing opportunistic pathogens as a previously underappreciated risk factor in hospital births.

We hypothesised that foetal immune responses to an infectious challenge may be detected by genome-wide transcriptional profiling of cord blood. In order to test this hypothesis, we sought to identify transcriptomic changes in post-natal cord blood samples following prolonged pre-labour rupture of membranes (PROM) as a surrogate for increased risk of infection. By comparison to controls we found increased levels of blood transcripts in a subset of prolonged PROM cases, significantly enriched for innate immune system signalling pathways. These changes were idiosyncratic, suggesting qualitative and quantitative variation in foetal immune responses which may reflect differences in exposure and/or in host genetics. Our data support the view that PROM represents an infection risk to the foetus. In addition, we propose that cord blood transcriptional profiling offers exciting opportunities to identify immune correlates of clinical outcome following potential in utero exposures to infection. These may be used to elucidate the mechanisms of immunological protection and pathology in the foetus and identify biomarkers to stratify the risk of adverse outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the extent and predictors of polymorphisms potentially influencing the susceptibility to HIV integrase inhibitors (INIs). METHODS: Genetic sequences of HIV integrase were obtained from INI-naive patients at two European clinics. The 39 amino acid changes at 29 integrase positions so far associated with INI resistance were examined according to HIV clade, prior antiretroviral exposure and duration of HIV infection. RESULTS: Integrase sequences were obtained from 418 patients, 294 (70.3%) infected with clade B and 124 (29.7%) infected with non-B variants (predominantly CRF02, A, C and D). Overall, 40% of patients were antiretroviral experienced and 32.8% were recent seroconverters. The most prevalent INI resistance-associated mutations were V72I (63.9%), V201I (54.8%), T206S (25.4%), I203M (9.8%) and K156N (7.4%). Major INI resistance mutations at positions 66, 92, 143, 148 and 155 were not detected. The mean number of polymorphic sites was greater in non-B than in B variants (2.17 versus 1.59; P < 0.001), and in antiretroviral-experienced than in drug-naive patients (1.89 versus 1.68; P = 0.034), whereas no significant differences were seen comparing recent seroconverters and chronically infected persons. CONCLUSIONS: Major INI resistance-associated mutations are very rare, if indeed ever present, in INI-naive patients. However, polymorphisms at positions which may influence the genetic barrier and/or drive the selection of specific INI resistance pathways are common, especially in HIV non-B subtypes.

Background: Increasing data shows the relevance of HBV genotypes in the outcome of infection. Most studies investigating the relationship between the genotypic characteristics of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and the clinical or epidemiological aspects of HBV infection originate from studies of patients with chronic rather than acute hepatitis B. Objectives: To study a convenience sample representing ca. 5% of reported acute hepatitis B in England between 1997 and 2001 to investigate the distribution of HBV genotypes and specific HBV variants with epidemiological risk factors, thereby providing baseline data for ongoing surveillance. Study design: From 160 serum samples, PCR was carried out to amplify the first 600 bases of the HBV S gene. Amplicons were sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis and risk factor analysis. Results: Fifty-seven percent of the study samples carried HBV belonging to subtype A2, 13% to subtype D2, and the rest to genotype E (8%) and subtypes C2 and D3 (each 6%), D1 and D4 (each 3%) and B4 (1%). One particular A2 isolate was dominant, accounting for 23% of the total sample set. Drug use and homosexual transmission were equally implicated as risks within genotype A2. No mutations associated with vaccine escape or resistance to antiviral therapy were identified. Conclusion: Immigration and travel likely shape the observed genotype distribution and consequent prevalence of genotypes other than A2 or D in this population. Data suggests no genetic separation of parenteral and sexually transmitted virus. These data demonstrate the value in pursuing more extensive and recent surveillance. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.