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Perineuronal nets (PNNs) form a specialized extracellular matrix that regulates neuronal activity. Their formation early in the postnatal period is regulated by neuronal signaling and glial activation raising concerns that the long-term neurological sequelae ascribed to perinatal viral infections could be mediated by altered PNN formation. Previously, we developed neonatal zika virus (ZIKV) infection model where mice have lifelong neurological sequelae despite resolving the acute infection. Here, we demonstrate that neonatal ZIKV infection results in a reduction of PNN formation during the acute disease with significant reduction in Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA) staining and increased aggrecan and brevican degradants. Following resolution of infection, the level of WFA staining as well as levels of aggrecan and brevican in brains normalize, but there is increased frequency of abnormal or immature PNN. In adults, the impact of the perinatal infection subsides and PNN levels and morphology are not different from control mice. Of note, the reduction in PNN formation during acute infection was associated with increased expression of MMP12 and MMP19, but not MMP9, ADAMTS-4 or ADAMTS-5. Together our findings indicate that infection at the time of PNN development interferes with PNN formation, but nets can reform once the infection and inflammation subside.

The rodent visual thalamus has served as a powerful model to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie sensory circuit formation and function. Despite significant advances in our understanding of the role of axon-target interactions and neural activity in orchestrating circuit formation in visual thalamus, the role of non-neuronal cells, such as astrocytes, is less clear. In fact, we know little about the transcriptional identity and development of astrocytes in mouse visual thalamus. To address this gap in knowledge, we studied the expression of canonical astrocyte molecules in visual thalamus using immunostaining, in situ hybridization, and reporter lines. While our data suggests some level of heterogeneity of astrocytes in different nuclei of the visual thalamus, the majority of thalamic astrocytes appeared to be labelled in Aldh1l1-EGFP mice. This led us to use this transgenic line to characterize the neonatal and postnatal development of these cells in visual thalamus. Our data show that not only have the entire cohort of astrocytes migrated into visual thalamus by eye-opening but they also have acquired their adult-like morphology, even while retinogeniculate synapses are still maturing. Furthermore, ultrastructural, immunohistochemical, and functional approaches revealed that by eye-opening, thalamic astrocytes ensheath retinogeniculate synapses and are capable of efficient uptake of glutamate. Taken together, our results reveal that the morphological, anatomical, and functional development of astrocytes in visual thalamus occurs prior to eye-opening and the emergence of experience-dependent visual activity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

A structural scaffold embedding brain cells and vasculature is known as extracellular matrix (ECM). The physical appearance of ECM in the central nervous system (CNS) ranges from a diffused, homogeneous, amorphous, and nearly omnipresent matrix to highly organized distinct morphologies such as basement membranes and perineuronal nets (PNNs). ECM changes its composition and organization during development, adulthood, aging, and in several CNS pathologies. This spatiotemporal dynamic nature of the ECM and PNNs brings a unique versatility to their functions spanning from neurogenesis, cell migration and differentiation, axonal growth, and pathfinding cues, etc., in the developing brain, to stabilizing synapses, neuromodulation, and being an active partner of tetrapartite synapses in the adult brain. The malleability of ECM and PNNs is governed by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Glial cells are among the major extrinsic factors that facilitate the remodeling of ECM and PNN, thereby acting as key regulators of diverse functions of ECM and PNN in health and diseases. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of PNNs and how glial cells are central to ECM and PNN remodeling in normal and pathological states of the CNS.

Vascular pericytes (PCs) stabilize blood vessels and contribute to their maturation, while also playing key roles in microvascular function. Nevertheless, relatively little is known about their involvement in the earliest stages of vascular development, specifically during vasculogenesis. We combined high-power, time-lapse imaging with transcriptional profiling of PCs and endothelial cells (ECs) in reporter mouse and cell lines. PCs emerged alongside EC differentiation, and physically engaged the vasculogenic endothelium in vivo and in vitro. We observed PC-EC coupling and identified Connexin43 (Cx43)-based gap junctions as key elements in PC-EC communication during vessel assembly. We found no overlap between differentiating PCs and other lineages including hemangiogenic and neuronal/glial cell types. Together, our data suggest that a distinct PC lineage emerges prior to vasculogenesis and participates in early vessel formation through direct communication with nascent endothelium via Cx43 – providing insight that reshapes the current framework of vascular development and informs tissue vascularization strategies.

SummaryPericytes (PCs), cells that extend along capillaries to contribute stability and other critical functions to established vasculature, are attracting attention from various fields involving vascular-related pathologies. Here, we demonstrate primary evidence of PC communication with endothelial cells (ECs) prior to tube coalescence. Observations of apparent PCs during early embryogenesis urged development of a mouse embryonic stem cell line (DR-ESCs), enabling unique dual-reporter investigations into earliest PC-EC interactions. Live imaging of differentiating DR-ESCs corroborated emergence of a PC lineage, which preceded EC differentiation, and further revealed highly dynamic PC-EC interactions during coordinated vessel formation. We show direct PC-EC communication via cell microinjection and dye-transfer, and RNA-seq analysis indicates a PC-EC coupling mechanism via gap junction Connexin43 (Cx43), exclusively up-regulated throughout DR-ESC differentiation. High resolution imaging of embryonic and postnatal mouse vasculature substantiates Cx43 plaques at PC-EC borders. These findings indicate a new role for PCs during vasculogenesis via Cx43-mediated communication with ECs.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.View Full Text

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder afflicting ~65 million people worldwide. It is caused by aberrant synchronized firing of populations of neurons primarily due to imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. Hence, the historical focus of epilepsy research has been neurocentric. However, the past two decades have enjoyed an explosion of research into the role of glia in supporting and modulating neuronal activity, providing compelling evidence of glial involvement in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. The mechanisms by which glia, particularly astrocytes and microglia, may contribute to epilepsy and consequently could be harnessed therapeutically are discussed in this Review.

Brain tumor patients commonly present with epileptic seizures. We show that tumor-associated seizures are the consequence of impaired GABAergic inhibition due to an overall loss of peritumoral fast spiking interneurons (FSNs) concomitant with a significantly reduced firing rate of those that remain. The reduced firing is due to the degradation of perineuronal nets (PNNs) that surround FSNs. We show that PNNs decrease specific membrane capacitance of FSNs permitting them to fire action potentials at supra-physiological frequencies. Tumor-released proteolytic enzymes degrade PNNs, resulting in increased membrane capacitance, reduced firing, and hence decreased GABA release. These studies uncovered a hitherto unknown role of PNNs as an electrostatic insulator that reduces specific membrane capacitance, functionally akin to myelin sheaths around axons, thereby permitting FSNs to exceed physiological firing rates. Disruption of PNNs may similarly account for excitation-inhibition imbalances in other forms of epilepsy and PNN protection through proteolytic inhibition may provide therapeutic benefits., Brain tumours are associated with epilepsy. Here the authors show, using a mouse model, that the degradation of perineuronal nets around fast spiking interneurons near the tumour contribute to seizures by increasing their membrane capacitance and firing.

It is well established that motor neurons are highly vulnerable to glutamate induced excitotoxicity. The selective vulnerability of these neurons has been attributed to AMPA receptor mediated excessive rise in cytosolic calcium and consequent mitochondrial Ca(2+) loading. Earlier we have reported that in motor neurons a generic rise in [Ca(2+)]i does not always lead to mitochondrial Ca(2+) loading and membrane depolarization but it occurs upon AMPA receptor activation. The mechanism of such specific mitochondrial involvement upon AMPA receptor activation is not known. The present study examines the mitochondrial Ca(2+) regulation and oxidative stress in spinal cord neurons upon AMPA subtype of glutamate receptor activation. Stimulating the spinal neurons with AMPA exhibited a sharp rise in [Ca(2+)]m in both motor and other spinal neurons that was sustained up to the end of recording time of 30min. The rise in [Ca(2+)]m was substantially higher in motor neurons than in other spinal neurons which could be due to the differential mitochondrial homeostasis in two types of neurons. To examine this possibility, we measured AMPA induced [Ca(2+)]m loading in the presence of mitochondrial inhibitors. In both cell types the AMPA induced [Ca(2+)]m loading was blocked by mitochondrial calcium uniporter blocker ruthenium red. In motor neurons it was also inhibited substantially by CGP37157 and cyclosporine-A, the blockers of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) respectively, whereas no effect of these agents was observed in other spinal neurons. Thus in motor neurons the Ca(2+) sequestration by mitochondria occurs through mitochondrial calcium uniporter as well as due to reversal of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, in contrast the latter pathway does not contribute in other spinal neurons. The ROS formation was inhibited by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-NAME in both types of neurons, however the mitochondrial complex-I inhibitor rotenone suppressed the ROS formation only in motor neurons. It appears that activation of cytoplasmic nNOS leads to ROS formation in both types of spinal neurons but mitochondria is the major source of ROS in motor neurons. Spinal neurons exhibited a significant time dependent fall in glutathione (GSH) level. The GSH level in motor neurons did not recover even at 24h after AMPA exposure, whereas the other spinal neurons exhibited a tendency to maintain the GSH after a certain level suggesting that the oxidative stress is arrested in other spinal neurons but it continues to increase in motor neurons. Thus our results demonstrate that upon AMPA receptor stimulation the motor neurons employ some additional pathways for regulation of mitochondrial calcium and oxidative stress as compared to other spinal neurons. It is suggested that such differential signaling mechanisms in motor neurons could be crucial for their selective vulnerability to excitotoxicity.

Excessive activation of AMPA receptor has been implicated in motor neuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, it is not clear why motor neurons are preferentially sensitive to AMPA receptor mediated excessive [Ca2+]i rise and excitotoxicity. In the present study we examined whether palmitoylation regulates Ca2+ permeability of AMPA receptor and excitotoxicity in cultured spinal cord neurons. We adapted chronic 2-bromopalmitate (2-BrP) treatment to achieve depalmitoylation and examined its effect on the cytotoxicity in spinal cord neurons exposed to AMPA. The change in AMPA induced signaling and cytotoxicity in motor neurons and other spinal neurons under identical conditions of exposure to AMPA was studied. 2-BrP treatment inhibited AMPA induced rise in [Ca2+]i and cytotoxicity in both types of neurons but the degree of inhibition was significantly higher in motor neurons as compared to other spinal neurons. The AMPA induced [Na+]i rise was moderately affected in both type of neurons on depalmitoylation. Depalmitoylation reduced the expression levels of AMPA receptor subunits (GluR1 and GluR2) and also PSD-95 but stargazin levels remained unaffected. Our results demonstrate that 2-BrP attenuates AMPA receptor activated Ca2+ signaling and cytotoxicity preferentially in motor neurons and suggest that AMPA receptor modulation by depalmitoylation could play a significant role in preventing motor neuron degeneration.

It is well established that motor neurons are highly vulnerable to glutamate induced excitotoxicity. The selective vulnerability of these neurons has been attributed to AMPA receptor mediated excessive rise in cytosolic calcium and consequent mitochondrial Ca(2+) loading. Earlier we have reported that in motor neurons a generic rise in [Ca(2+)]i does not always lead to mitochondrial Ca(2+) loading and membrane depolarization but it occurs upon AMPA receptor activation. The mechanism of such specific mitochondrial involvement upon AMPA receptor activation is not known. The present study examines the mitochondrial Ca(2+) regulation and oxidative stress in spinal cord neurons upon AMPA subtype of glutamate receptor activation. Stimulating the spinal neurons with AMPA exhibited a sharp rise in [Ca(2+)]m in both motor and other spinal neurons that was sustained up to the end of recording time of 30min. The rise in [Ca(2+)]m was substantially higher in motor neurons than in other spinal neurons which could be due to the differential mitochondrial homeostasis in two types of neurons. To examine this possibility, we measured AMPA induced [Ca(2+)]m loading in the presence of mitochondrial inhibitors. In both cell types the AMPA induced [Ca(2+)]m loading was blocked by mitochondrial calcium uniporter blocker ruthenium red. In motor neurons it was also inhibited substantially by CGP37157 and cyclosporine-A, the blockers of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) respectively, whereas no effect of these agents was observed in other spinal neurons. Thus in motor neurons the Ca(2+) sequestration by mitochondria occurs through mitochondrial calcium uniporter as well as due to reversal of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, in contrast the latter pathway does not contribute in other spinal neurons. The ROS formation was inhibited by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-NAME in both types of neurons, however the mitochondrial complex-I inhibitor rotenone suppressed the ROS formation only in motor neurons. It appears that activation of cytoplasmic nNOS leads to ROS formation in both types of spinal neurons but mitochondria is the major source of ROS in motor neurons. Spinal neurons exhibited a significant time dependent fall in glutathione (GSH) level. The GSH level in motor neurons did not recover even at 24h after AMPA exposure, whereas the other spinal neurons exhibited a tendency to maintain the GSH after a certain level suggesting that the oxidative stress is arrested in other spinal neurons but it continues to increase in motor neurons. Thus our results demonstrate that upon AMPA receptor stimulation the motor neurons employ some additional pathways for regulation of mitochondrial calcium and oxidative stress as compared to other spinal neurons. It is suggested that such differential signaling mechanisms in motor neurons could be crucial for their selective vulnerability to excitotoxicity.