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The present study aims at investigating whether a latent factor representing CM/CI is associated with an attenuated stress response to experimentally induced stress following a stressor comprised of intellectual challenges, as it is strongly suggested by e.g., the conceptualization of NFC. The following research question will be answered: Does CM/CI predict the physiological and subjectively experienced stress during the tasks and is this effect mediated by the reported motivation to work on the cognitive tasks and the enjoyment with these tasks?

Amidst many focuses in the area of research related to factors influencing cognitive ability as well as cognition in general, constructs measuring aspects of cognitive motivation or cognitive investment have in recent years increasingly provoked interest and lead to diverse findings in specifically psychological research and beyond. Probably the construct most focused on is Need for Cognition (NFC) which has originally been conceptualized by Cacioppo and Petty (1982) as well as following researchers (Cacioppo et al., 1996) and characterized as an individual’s stable tendency to actively search for and engage in effortful intellectual challenges and endeavours as well as enjoy such an activity. Individuals scoring high on NFC have been found to be highly intrinsically motivated and naturally tending to seek, acquire and evaluate information to make sense of their surroundings (Cacioppo et al., 1996). Given the characterisation of the construct of NFC as well as early findings by Cacioppo et al. (1996), it might be presumed that the principal characteristic of individuals high on NFC to actively search for and enjoy challenging intellectual endeavours is linked to a particular pattern of general cognitive dispositions and processes. Das et al. (2003) for instance found NFC to be moderately to highly and significantly positively associated with information seeking behaviour on the internet, the latter being referred to by the authors as a more complex source of information compared to others. Mokhtari et al. also (2013) reported a high association between NFC and a self-constructed questionnaire to measure information seeking behaviour (Mokhtari et al., 2013). Verplanken et al. (1992) also found individuals scoring high on NFC to show a greater desire for and a more resilient search of information in a task concerning the evaluation of presented brands. Also, the cognitive effort put into this evaluation was positively associated with NFC. Curşeu (2011) on the other hand found students high on NFC to have a greater tendency to seek information from other students in their study group. Furthermore, Cacioppo et al. (1996) suggests that individuals lower on NFC invest less cognitive effort when processing information and also rely more on mental short-cuts (e.g., the belief in experts) to make sense out of information presented to them. Results by Levin et al. (2000) support this conception, as differences between high and low scoring individuals on NFC in the amount of acquired knowledge were found primarily when it was demanded to make a choice about which few options to include into further consideration. This might be explained by an increased demand for thorough evaluation when consequences of a choice are weightier (Levin et al., 2000). Furthermore, the way in which a problem is framed seems to have a significant effect on the individuals’ choice when scoring low on NFC but not for those with high scores on the construct (Smith & Levin, 1996). Regarding motivational factors, See et al. (2009) found individuals with high levels on NFC to be more motivated to process the information contained in a message described as complex in opposition to simple, with individuals scoring low showing the reversed pattern. Also, persons scoring high on NFC indeed applied their cognitive resources only when the message was labelled as complex (See et al., 2009). Also, Cazan and Indreica (2014) found NFC to be moderately up to highly and positively associated to learning-strategies like “deep processing” as well as “self-regulation strategies”, suggesting a deeper engagement with information as well the utilization of metacognitive skills to attain a specific goal (Cazan & Indreica, 2014). Various studies have investigated the relationship between NFC and measures of crystallized as well as fluid intelligence. Stuart-Hamilton and McDonald (2001) operationalized crystallized intelligence as the score in the Mill Hill Vocabulary Test (Raven, Court, & Raven, 1994, as cited in Stuart-Hamilton & McDonald, 2001) and reported only small correlations between the measures in a sample of older adults. In Tidwell et al. (2000), participants’ knowledge was operationalized as the score in a multiple-choice test and verbal ability measured with the Shipley-Hartford scale (Shipley, 1940, as cited in Tidwell et al., 2000). NFC was found to be lightly associated with knowledge and moderately with verbal ability, the former correlation being small but significant even with verbal ability partialed out. Woo et al. (2007) reported a significant moderate correlation between NFC and knowledge in various areas, which was however operationalized as the participants estimation of their own self-rated knowledge, while controlling for self-enhancement. Concerning fluid intelligence, Stuart-Hamilton and McDonald (2001) found a moderate to high positive and significant association between NFC and scores in Raven’s matrices. The latter measure an individual’s ability to detect a pattern in a series of figures and complete it by choosing a figure from the possible options. Furnham and Thorne (2013) examined the relationship of NFC to the Wonderlic Personnel Test (Wonderlic, 1992, as cited in Furnham and Thorne, 2013) as an indicator of intellectual ability. NFC was moderately up to highly correlated to the test, yet as this measure is regarded as measuring general intelligence rather than either fluid or crystallized intelligence separately (Bell et al., 2002), their results are difficult to interpret in this regard. Fleischhauer et al. (2010) used the I-S-T 2000 R, an intelligence test that allows e.g., for measuring verbal intelligence, figural and spacial intelligence, arithmetical intelligence, working memory, deductive reasoning as well as fluid and crystallized intelligence (Amthauer et al., 2001). They reported NFC to be moderately positive and significantly correlated to measures of fluid intelligence with crystallized intelligence being however only lightly positively and not significantly associated with the construct. Additionally, individuals scoring high on NFC did in fact not respond correctly to more tasks than individuals low on NFC but answered more correctly on those that they did approach. This supports the conclusion of a particular style of answering and suggests primarily a greater investment of cognitive resources and inclination to solve a given puzzle. Hill et al. (2013) used the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (Wechsler, 1997, as cited in Hill et al., 2013) as well as Raven’s matrices and found NFC and fluid intelligence to be moderately and significantly positively associated. Other than in Fleischhauer et al. (2010) however, also three categories measuring crystallized intelligence were significantly associated with NFC to a moderate degree. One should further suspect individuals with higher scores on NFC to be e.g., more apt to being effectively involved in a prolonged and demanding cognitive effort due to their tendency to engage in and enjoy complex puzzles and other cognitive challenges. This conception of NFC suggests that these individuals could display greater capacities in several executive functions such as working memory and inhibitory control (Miyake et al., 2000): A prolonged engagement in intellectually challenging situations will for example potentially demand from individuals to constantly take up, retain and update information necessary for the tasks ahead as well as show a certain resilience to distracting influences. The former might consequently be represented in an enhanced working memory capacity and the latter in a heightened inhibitory control – the ability to deliberately inhibit dominant and automatic responses when it is required (Miyake et al., 2000; Diamond, 2013). In a preliminary literature screening, comparatively few studies have been found that – directly or indirectly – link NFC to executive functions. However, a cognitive function that has occasionally been conceptualized as an overlying construct which increases due to enhanced executive functions is “self-control” (Katzir et al., 2010). It describes the capacity to choose in a given situation long-term beneficial global goals or values over short-term situational benefits (Fujita, 2011) and has been found to be significantly and positively correlated to NFC (Bertrams & Dickhäuser, 2009; Grass et al., 2019). Also, self-control seems to mediate the relationship between NFC and the school grades attained by participants (Bertrams & Dickhäuser, 2009). While no studies have been found, that directly addressed the relationship to NFC, the Stroop task is an often-used measure to assess inhibitory control as an individual’s capacity to suppress a dominant response to the word information (e.g., West & Alain, 2000; Bratzke et al., 2012). Though labelled with “self-control”, findings by Bertrams and Dickhäuser (2012) who examined the relationship between NFC and participants’ performance in the Stroop task might therefore be also regarded as also directly concerning inhibitory control. These authors reported a positive small to moderate association but no correlation to the reaction times in interference trials when administering a Stroop task without a previous depleting task (Bertrams & Dickhäuser, 2012). However, in a recent attempt to clarify the relationship between NFC and central executive functions, Gärtner et al. (2021) also examined inhibitory control next to other functions such as shifting and updating. Applying a Bayesian Correlation Analysis to the data and providing sufficient power to detect the suspected effects, their findings do not allow the conclusion that NFC is related to any of these functions. Furthermore, only a few studies have focused on the relationship between working memory and NFC. With NFC being generally characterized as an individual’s intrinsically motivated tendency to engage in effortful cognitive endeavours and enjoy this activity, it would have to be suspected that such activities required enhanced mnestic abilities, yet e.g., results by Fleischhauer et al. (2010) suggest no noticeable relationship to NFC. Similar results have been reported by Hill et al. (2016), who also did not find significant associations of NFC to e.g., a task measuring listening span as well as a N-back task. However, Hill et al. (2016) further analysed the same data used by Hill et al. (2013) and examined the possible influence of working memory as a moderator on the relationship between NFC and intelligence measures. Their results suggest that working memory does indeed serve as a moderator on the relationship insofar as an average degree of working memory capacity is required for the positive relationship between NFC and intelligence to be observed (Hill et al., 2013). The goal of the present review and meta-analysis is to provide an answer to the questions concerning the relationship between Need for Cognition (NFC) and fluid and crystallized intelligence as well as executive functions. Though the association between these variables has been investigated over the last decades, the results must partially be regarded as very dispersed over multiple fields of psychological research as well as provided using sometimes different kind of measures. To allow for a clearer and more comprehensive picture, the present study will therefore aim at reviewing the available literature up to the present date as well as provide a metanalytic synthetization of study results. In order to examine this relationship, the study aims at answering the following questions by estimating the mean effect size (calculated as Pearson’s r) across primary studies. The specific kinds of measurement of the cognitive variable mentioned in research question 3 refers to potential differences in the way in which a cognitive variable could have been measured over studies. Hill et al. (2016) for instance used several measures as indicators of working memory capacity. As the theoretical background does not clearly indicate a relationship between NFC and executive functions, no specific hypotheses can be derived and formulated. However, the definition of NFC as well as the respective functions does conceptually suggest potential associations to some degree, which is why the association of NFC with these cognitive functions will be examined next to intelligence. Yet with no explicit expectations in this regard, research question 2 can consequently be considered as exploratory. Research question 3 is equally of exploratory kind because the set of moderating variables that have been specified here cannot be regarded as being exhaustive and will over the course of the literature search potentially be extended. The research questions are the following: 1. What are the relations between NFC and measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence? 2. What are the relations between NFC and executive functions such as self-control, inhibitory control, shifting, updating, attention-related variables and working memory? 3. Do variables like age, sex, risk of bias and the specific kind of measurement of the cognitive variable in the primary studies moderate the relationship between NFC and the respective cognitive variables?

The aim of our article is: to characterize a phase character of the educational activity at secondary schools, to describe a cognitive sphere of the person, which has a fundamental load in terms of constructing a model of the world, modeling the stages of logical memorization, to distinguish some routes of cognitive process according to psychological principles of providing deductive techniques, to propose psychological principles, which are the basis of providing deductive models at the English lessons at secondary schools. Methods of the research. The following theoretical methods of the research were used to solve the tasks formulated in the article: a categorical method, structural and functional methods, the methods of the analysis, systematization, modeling, generalization. The results of the research. Educational activity has a phase character. The first phase is characterized by awareness of the situation, the general conscious­ness increases to perform a long period of mental activity. In the measures of the second phase there is a process of unstable adaptation – the system of motives, needs and interests in close interaction with volitional activity having been created the preconditions for further adaptation to the whole process of educational activity. The third phase is a period of stable adaptation, when the goal is fully realized and conditions for its realization appear, the entire system of levels of the activity comes in line with the main goal of learning. It was shown that emphatic types of memory are motion, emotional, ver­bal-logical, sensory (visual, auditory, olfactory), figurative, mechanical, logical, long-term, short-term, involuntary, non-voluntary, etc. All of them, one this way or another one, are involved into the process of perception and processing the information. Sometimes the classification is used by different types of the analyzers: visual, auditory, motion, mixed, etc. It should be fixed in mind that the efficiency of logical memory is twenty times higher, better than mechanical one. In the article it was proposed the authors’ own vision of the stages of logical memorization. Conclusions. Cognitive motivation is recommended by us to be formed on the basis of the following psychological principles, which are the basis of pro­viding deductive models at the English lessons at secondary schools: with the help of specially organized didactic actions; by creation of problem situations; by introduction of special forms and methods of active learning, in which the prin­ciple of problem education is realized; by development of cognitive motivation in communication between a teacher and pupils, as well as schoolchildren with each other; by revitalization of teacher’s pedagogical skills, his / her ability to organize correctly the activities of pupils.

The use of an elaborate system of co-verbial constructions is the hallmark of the Hungarian language and one of the biggest challenges a translator or a learner of this language has to face. Co-verbial constructions consist of verbs, or their derivates, accompanied by a limited number of prefixes or particles that modify their meanings. They not only perform numerous syntactic and lexical functions, which is important in terms of language production, but also are able to change the meaning of the verb completely. The aim of this study is to trace the cognitive motivation behind the use of Hungarian co-verbial constructions with össze/szét and to show that the meanings developed by these constructions can be organized with reference to prototypical scenes structured in the form of a radial category.

People's motivation to engage in cognitive effort is a variable which is relevant in different psychological domains (e.g., social cognition research). Despite its potential benefits, a psychometrically sound state measure of cognitive motivation is still lacking. We therefore developed the 10-item motivation for cognition (MFC) state scale based on the established conceptualization and measure of trait need for cognition (NFC). In two studies, we examined the psychometric properties of the new measure. Study 1 revealed that the MFC scale reliably measures a one-dimensional construct. Moreover, the MFC scale was related to NFC and choice of task effort in an expected manner. In Study 2, relationships with NFC, achievement motives, self-control capacity, subjective vitality, momentary affect, and choice of task effort provide further preliminary support for the MFC scale as being a valid measure of momentary cognitive motivation. We discuss the utility of the new scale in psychological research and practice.

Background: Depressive symptoms compromise cognitive and self-regulating capacities. Overcoming associated deficits (e.g., attentional bias) demands cognitive effort and motivation. Previous studies on healthy individuals have found cognitive motivation to positively relate to self-regulation and negatively to depressive symptoms. A test of these associations in a clinical sample is lacking.Methods: We assessed cognitive motivation, self-regulation and depressive symptoms by means of well-validated questionnaires in N = 1,060 psychosomatic rehabilitation in-patients before and after treatment. Data were split and analyzed in two steps: We tested previously reported cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of all variables as well as their longitudinal changes in a first sample. Afterward, findings and derived hypotheses were replicated and tested in a second sample.Results: Analyses of both samples confirmed earlier reports on positive associations between cognitive motivation and self-regulation, and negative associations of both with depressive symptoms. While the change in all variables was predicted by their baseline scores, higher baseline cognitive motivation was found to predict stronger improvements in self-regulation, and lower baseline depression scores to predict smaller changes in cognitive motivation and self-regulation. In addition, the change in cognitive motivation partially mediated the association between the changes in depressive symptoms and self-regulation.Conclusion: Based on a large longitudinal data set, the present study expands previous findings and suggests a resource allocation model in which decreasing depressive symptoms lead to a release of capacities benefitting self-regulation directly, and indirectly via cognitive motivation.

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В статье рассматриваются содержательные аспекты математической подготовки студентов педагогических вузов, направленной на формирование базовых образовательных и профессиональных ценностей. Проблема освещается применительно к дисциплине «Алгебра и теория чисел», основными целями изучения которой являются освоение соответствующих теоретических разделов и прикладных методов. Учитывая актуальность в современных условиях обучения вопросов формирования универсальных учебных действий, развития познавательной мотивации студентов, в работе предлагаются задания по составлению и решению диофантовых уравнений (алгебраических уравнений, содержащих более одной переменной и решаемых в целых или натуральных числах) с использованием одного из способов их исследования – метода деления с остатком. Тем более, что умение решать такие задачи будет востребовано в будущей профессиональной деятельности обучаемых. Приведенные примеры заданий показывают, как на примере изучения теоретико-числового материала можно вовлечь студентов в самостоятельную деятельность, направленную на приобретение новых знаний, умений и их целенаправленное применение. Подробно описаны этапы составления диофантовых уравнений, удовлетворяющих заданным начальным условиям; проанализированы пути получения уравнений, неразрешимых в целых числах и имеющих решения на заданном множестве целых или натуральных чисел; показано применение различных теоретических положений, используемых для их решения. Наполнение занятий такими заданиями, несомненно, способствует повышению значимости получаемых на занятиях знаний через их применение на практике при решении задач творческого характера. Представленный в статье отбор необходимого содержания, позволяющего выполнить эти условия, дает возможность для активной самостоятельной исследовательской деятельности в рамках конкретной математической проблемы, анализа полученных фактов и прогнозирования результатов своих действий, реализует возможность практического применения теоретических знаний., In the article are considered informative aspects of the mathematical training of pedagogical University students directed to form basic educational and professional values. This problem is covered in relation to the discipline «Algebra and the Number Theory», which main objectives of study are mastering of appropriate theoretical sections and applied methods. Considering relevance in the modern conditions to train the question of formation of the universal educational actions, development of students’ cognitive motivation, in the work here are offered tasks on compilation and solution of the Diophantine equations (the algebraic equations containing more than one variable and which are solved in the integral or natural numbers) with the use of one of methods of their research – a method of division with remainder. Especially this ability to solve these problems will be necessary in students’ future professional activity. The given examples of problems show how on the example of the study of number-theoretic material it is possible to involve students into the independent activities directed to get new knowledge, abilities and their purposeful use. The stages of compilation of the Diophantine equations meeting the given initial conditions are described in detail, ways of receiving the equations insoluble in integral numbers and the integral or natural numbers having solutions on the given set are analyzed, use of different theoretical provisions used for their solution is presented. Filling lessons with such tasks, undoubtedly, promotes the increase in significance of knowledge gained at lessons through their practical use in case of solving tasks of creative character. The selection of the necessary contents allowing to satisfy these conditions provided in the article gives the chance for the vigorous independent research activity within a specific mathematical problem, the analysis of the received facts and prediction of results of the actions, realizes a possibility of practical use of theoretical knowledge.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to operationalise and verify a cognitive motivation model that has been adapted to information seeking. The original model was presented within the field of psychology. Design/methodology/approach – An operationalisation of the model is presented based on the theory of expectancy-value and on the operationalisation used when the model was first developed. Data for the analysis were collected from a sample of seven informants working as consultants in Danish municipalities. Each participant filled out a questionnaire, kept a log book for a week and participated in a subsequent interview to elicit data regarding their information source behaviour and task motivation. Findings – Motivation affected source use when the informants search for information as part of their professional life. This meant that the number of sources used and the preference for interpersonal and internal sources increased when the task had high-value motivation or low-expectancy motivation or both. Research limitations/implications – The study is based on a relatively small sample and considers only one motivation theory. This should be addressed in future research along with a broadening of the studied group to involve other professions than municipality consultants. Originality/value – Motivational theories from the field of psychology have been used sparsely in studies of information seeking. This study operationalises and verifies such a theory based on a theoretical adaptation of this model made by Savolainen (2012c).

Веснік Віцебскага дзяржаўнага ўніверсітэта. - 2017. - № 3. - С. 92-98., Цель статьи – проанализировать уровень сформированности познавательного интереса учащихся через диагностику его показателей. = The purpose of the article is to analyze the level of shaping pupils’ cognitive interest through diagnostics of its parameters.

В современных социально- экономических и социокультурных изменениях, происходящих в российском обществе, знание становится интеллектуальным товаром. Интеллектуальное саморазвитие является сегодня приоритетным в системе образования. В статье рассматривается процесс интеллектуального саморазвития учащихся среднего звена общеобразовательной школы, дано рабочее определение термину «интеллектуальное саморазвитие», выделены критерии и уровневые показатели. Ключевую роль в процессе интеллектуального саморазвития играет познавательная мотивация учащихся среднего звена. Создание условий, влияющих интеллектуальное саморазвитие, будет генерировать у учащихся потребность в самостоятельном приобретении знаний, развитии познавательных интересов. In the current social - economic and social-cultural changes taking place in the Russian society, knowledge is becoming an intellectual commodity. Intelligent self-development is now a priority in the education system. The article discusses the process of intellectual self-development of the middle level students. Also it is given here a working definition of the term "intellectual self-development", the criteria and the level indicators. The key role in the intellectual self development plays a cognitive motivation of students of middle level. The creation of conditions that affect the intellectual self-development will generate a need of the students for independent acquisition of knowledge, the development of cognitive interests. Левина Оксана Николаевна. Заместитель директора по учебно- методической работе, НОАНО ВПО «Институт бизнеса и политики» (Оренбург- ский филиал). Oksana N. Levina. Assistant Director of Education and Methodology, the Orenburg Branch of the Moscow Institute of Business and Politics.