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Zagadnienie prawa wewnętrznego wspólnot mieszkaniowych nie było dotychczas podejmowane w literaturze przedmiotu w sposób kompleksowy. Problematyka ta jest niezwykle ważna z uwagi na to, że ułomnych osób prawnych w naszym kraju jest blisko pięć milionów. Prawo wewnętrzne wspólnot mieszkaniowych to konkretyzacja rozwiązań ustawowych, ale przede wszystkim system ten każdorazowo odzwierciedla specyfikę działania każdej wspólnoty mieszkaniowej z osobna. Są to zwłaszcza uchwały podejmowane przez wspólnotę, ale należy pamiętać też o innych, specyficznych dla tego systemu źródłach. Ich uzupełnieniem są zasady ogólne, których wyróżnienie jest niezwykle istotne, bo dopełnia złożoną problematykę podejmowania przez wspólnotę mieszkaniową uchwał. Niniejsze opracowanie bazuje na najnowszych poglądach doktryny oraz na orzecznictwie sądowym. The issue of the internal law of housing communities has not been dealt with comprehensively in the literature of the subject so far. This issue is extremely important given that there are nearly five million entities without legal personality in our country. The internal law of housing communities is a concretization of statutory solutions, but most importantly, the system each time reflects the specificity of the operation of each housing community separately. These are especially resolutions passed by the community, but other sources specific to this system should also be kept in mind. This issue is complemented by general principles, the distinction of which is extremely important, because it completes the complex issue of resolutions by the housing community. This study is based on the latest views of doctrine and judicial decisions. Питання внутрішнього права житлових громад досі в літературі вичерпно не обговорювалося. Це питання є надзвичайно важливим у зв’язку з тим, що в нашiй державі налічується близько п’яти міль- йонів юридичних осіб з обмеженими можливостями. Внутрішнє право житлових громад є конкретизацією нормативно-правових рішень, але перш за все ця система щоразу відображає специфіку функціонування кожної з житлових громад окремо. Особливо це рішення, прийняті громадою, але слід пам’ятати і про інші джерела, характерні для цієї системи. Вони доповнені загальними правилами, розрізнення яких є надзви- чайно важливим, оскільки завершують комплексне питання прийняття житловою громадою резолюцій. Це дослідження базується на останніх поглядах доктрини та судових рішеннях. Вопрос о внутреннем праве товариществ собственников жилья до сих пор не был всесторонне рассмотрен в литературе. Этот вопрос чрезвычайно важен в связи с тем, что в нашей стране насчитывается около пяти миллионов неполноценных юридических лиц. Внутреннее право товариществ собственников жилья является конкретизацией законодательных решений, но в большей степени эта система отражает специфику деятельности каждого товарищества собственников жилья в отдельности. Это, в частности, решения, принятые товариществами, но следует помнить и о других источниках, специфичных для данной системы. Они дополнены общими правилами, упоминание которых чрезвычайно важно, поскольку дополняет всю сложность вопроса о принятии решений товариществами собственников жилья. Настоящее исследование основано на последних положениях доктрины и судебных решениях.

Proyecto de I+D+i PID2019-106118GB-I00, financiado por MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033/., El reconocimiento y alcance del derecho de acceso a la información pública ha seguido sendas distintas en el contexto del Consejo de Europa y en el ámbito de la Unión Europea, si bien, en ambos casos, su interpretación se encuentra inevitablemente vinculada a la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos y del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea, respectivamente. En este artículo se analizan las sentencias más significativas —incluyendo algunas muy recientes— en las que ambos órganos judiciales han tenido la oportunidad de pronunciarse delimitando la configuración y los límites al ejercicio del derecho, así como su carácter iusfundamental. El resultado es un derecho de acceso a la información pública cuyo régimen jurídico presenta singularidades propias según se trate del sistema del CEDH o del Derecho de la Unión Europea, pero también ciertas similitudes que, analizadas de forma conjunta, permiten constatar una tendencia jurisprudencial compartida orientada a ampliar el alcance de este derecho., The recognition and scope of the right to access public information has followed different paths within the framework of the Council of Europe and the European Union, although, in both cases, its interpretation is inevitably linked to the case law of the European Court of Human Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Union, respectively. This article analyses the most significant judgments —including some very recent ones— in which both courts have had the opportunity to pronounce on the configuration and limits to the exercise of the right, as well as its fundamental nature. The result is a right of access to public information whose legal regime presents its own singularities depending on whether it is the ECHR system or European Union law, but also certain similarities which, when analysed together, allow us to see a shared jurisprudential trend aimed at extending the scope of that right., MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033

The article analyzes the didactic principles of information competence formation in international students of medical specialties. The definition of the concept “didactic principle” is presented. Basic general and specific didactic principles are determined and substantiated. Theoretical background on the basis of scientific research review is provided. Various systems of didactic principles of information-communication and information competence formation are analyzed. It is concluded that the formation of information competence of foreign medical students should be implemented on the basis of taking into account two groups of principles: leading general didactic and specific. The following principles are included into the first group: system-orientation and systematicity (organization of the submission of educational material in a certain order, that is, the logical connection of each new element of its content with the previous and subsequent element, as well as ensuring the systematic assimilation of educational material by the applicants through the implementation of systematic actions of all participants in the educational process); awareness (leads to a thorough acquisition of students’ knowledge on the basis of awareness of their close connection with practical activities, ensuring the integration of the knowledge, skills acquired in the educational process, skills for successful completion of tasks in quasi-professional and professional activities); scientific-orientation (points to the existence of a regular link between scientific information and educational material in different disciplines, and also involves the disclosure of the objectivity of scientific facts, concepts, laws, theories, coverage of modern achievements and prospects for the development of various scientific fields, including medical); individualization and differentiation of training (provides consideration of individual characteristics and educational opportunities of each foreign medical student). The specific principles are identified: professional orientation (the process of forming the specified competence of the applicants is closely related to their professional development); taking into account the mental and cultural characteristics of foreign students (involves taking into account their socio-cultural characteristics: cultural, ethnic, religious, linguistic, as well as cultural traditions, customs, social value orientations, which allows to counteract the communicative barriers that arise in the environment, different cultures); activity and interactivity-orientation (encourages students to participate actively in the educational process through the organization of the teacher of an interactive educational environment, in particular through the widespread use of active and interactive methods, teaching aids, which will promote better perception and assimilation of educational material, the formation of their positive attitude to the learning; updating the subjective position of the applicants when working with information (aimed at selecting a set of methods, forms, training tools that ensures the transformation of the future specialist into an autonomous subject of information activity)

With the rapid application of nuclear energy and radiological technology in national economy and military field, the risk of nuclear accidents increases as well. Exposure to irradiation causes severe damages to the human body, and radioprotective agents are required for medical protection. To find the safe and effective radioprotective agents is the key for nuclear emergency. Recently, Toll like receptors (TLRs) and PHD-HIF oxygen sensing signal pathway have been extensively studied for radioprotection. Great progress has been made in this field and a number of radioprotective agents have been found. In this review, we have summarized recent findings of radioprotective roles of TLRs signaling pathway and PHD-HIF signaling pathway and discussed the general principles of developing novel radioprotective agents. These findings will provide opportunities for developing new strategies to prevent IR-induced injuries in public health events.

The chapter focuses on the role of the European Union’s general principles of equal treatment in the field of non-discrimination law in the context of EU-Directives 2000/43 and 2000/78.

The ontological, terminological and conceptual confusion that surrounds the concept of ‘general principles of European Union law’ is far from being resolved. The constitutional interlocutors— the Court of Justice of the European Union and the highest courts in Member States—have at times fiercely argued about their different understanding of general principles, whereas European legal scholarship has failed to convincingly clarify the intricacies surrounding this source of law. Instead of engaging with a more abstract, theoretical question of what general principles are, this paper reflects on the practical, functionalist question: how are they used by the Court of Justice and what are some of their functions and implications? To do so, it enquires into contextual, institutional and strategic features of the Court's behaviour and jurisprudence and responses of the highest national judiciaries to this jurisprudence. The aim is to offer an alternative account of the Court's jurisprudence on general principles.

Статья посвящена анализу сущности правового обычая в виде норм lex mercatoria, через призму основополагающего источника данного правового явления - практики международных коммерческих арбитражей. В настоящее время одним из наиболее существенных и значимых вопросов, требующих своего разрешения при передаче спора, возникшего между сторонами сделки, на рассмотрение в международный коммерческий арбитражный суд является вопрос об определении права, которое будет применяться для урегулирования данных отношений. Несмотря на то, что фактически lex mercatoria выступает одним из наиболее важных источников правового регулирования общественных отношений в сфере международного частного права, по сей день существует множество дискуссий среди отечественных и зарубежных ученых, нет единства мнений относительно его сущности, а также юридической силы., The article is devoted to the analysis of the essence of legal custom in the form of lex mercatoria norms, through the prism of the fundamental source of this legal phenomenon - the practice of international commercial arbitration. Currently, one of the most significant and significant issues requiring its resolution when a dispute arisen between the parties to a transaction is submitted to an international commercial arbitration court is the question of determining the law that will be applied to settle these relations. Despite the fact that lex mercatoria is actually one of the most important sources of legal regulation of public relations in the field of private international law, to this day there are many discussions among domestic and foreign scientists, there is no consensus regarding its essence, as well as legal force.

В данной статье говорится об общих принципах анализа медико-демографических показателей. Медико-демографические показатели характеризуют качественные и количественные изменения в процессах воспроизводства населения. Они широко используются для комплексной оценки динамики здоровья населения, определяющей основные направления совершенствования деятельности санитарно-противоэпидемических и лечебно-профилактических организаций, положены в основу планирования сети и кадров здравоохранения, обосновывают медико-социальные и медико-демографические мероприятия, направленные на оптимизацию процесса воспроизводства населения., This article discusses the general principles of the analysis of medical and demographic indicators. Medical and demographic indicators characterize qualitative and quantitative changes in the processes of population reproduction. They are widely used for a comprehensive assessment of the dynamics of public health, which determines the main directions for improving the activities of sanitary and anti-epidemic and medical-preventive organizations, are the basis for planning the network and personnel of health care, justify medical-social and medical-demographic measures aimed at optimizing the process of reproduction of the population.

Article 6 Treaty on European Union sets out two sources of fundamental rights in the EU—the Charter and the general principles of EU law—without specifying a hierarchy between them. Even though the Charter became binding over a decade ago, the Court of Justice of the European Union (‘CJEU’) is yet to clarify unequivocally how these two sources interact. In this article I argue based upon the relevant legal framework that the Charter ought to replace the general principles it enshrines. This leaves a role for general principles in the incorporation of new and additional rights into the EU legal framework. Such an approach is necessary to ensure that the Charter achieves its aims in enhancing the visibility of the rights protected by EU law, while also providing the impetus for more coherent rights protection within the EU. What an extensive survey of CJEU case law in the field of non-discrimination shows, however, is that the CJEU has struggled to let its general principles case law go, potentially hampering the transformative potential of the Charter.

The four general principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child are one of its most cited features. This article tracks the evolution of the “general principles” in the drafting process of the Convention and the Committee’s determination of the content of its 1991 reporting guidelines. This is followed by an analysis of the approach to the “general principles” that the Committee has adopted in its monitoring and reporting processes and General Comments. It concludes that these four articles are not necessarily “general” nor “principles” and suggests how the concept of a set of cross-cutting standards might evolve and perhaps be reformulated in ways that are faithful to both the text of the Convention and subsequent understanding and practice.

Globalization and digitalization of international sales creates needs to harmonize rules of international commercial contracts. The question is whether the harmonization should be done by binding rules or using soft law tools or through digitalization. In this article I argue on favor of harmonization through international contracts law rules’ international interpretation.The international interpretation principles used in this article are found from on Art. 7(1) of the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) which sets three interpretation rules: international character; promoting uniformity; and observance of good faith in international trade. These principles are not only principles of the CISG, but also principles commonly recognized in international commercial practice and also in domestic contract rules. I argue that by adopting an international interpretation umbrella – the meta-principle of international interpretation, cross-border contracts could be interpreted under the same principle no matter applicable substantial law. The meta-principle functions as an interpretation umbrella covering general principles and Articles of the CISG, general principles of international commercial contracts, Lex Mercatoria, and cross-border contract provision under national law.The outcomes points out that arbitral tribunals have interpreted general principles of the CISG and Lex Mercatoria in various ways. General principles and their application in case law is analyzed in connection with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Tribunals found that general principles of the CISG are applicable even if the CISG is not. It follows Art.’s 7(2) logic to promote international standard to cross-border contracts where the closes connection is international commercial practice rather than any national jurisdiction.

Статья содержит анализ вопросов, затрагивающих права ребенка в международном праве. Определены главные нюансы нормотворческой работы в сфере прав ребенка, рассмотрены основные международные соглашения в области защиты прав человека и ребенка, выявлена взаимосвязь данных документов, приводятся основные права детей и общие принципы их защиты. Авторы определяют ключевой способ защиты прав ребенка — заключение договоров о совместной с иностранными государствами деятельности в области защиты прав детей, а также создание международной структуры обеспечения прав лиц данной категории., The article contains an analysis of issues affecting the rights of the child in international law. It identifies the main nuances of the rule-making work in the field of the rights of the child, discusses the main international agreements in the field of the protection of the human rights of the child and the child, identifies the relationship among these documents, outlines the basic rights of children and general principles for their protection. The authors define a key way to protect the rights of the child — concluding agreements on joint activities with foreign states in the field of protecting the rights of children, as well as creating an international structure for ensuring the rights of persons in this category.

В статье предпринята попытка конкретизации понятия «общие принципы». Авторы предлагают классификацию положений, которые образуют правовой каркас сложившейся концепции местного самоуправления в современной России., The article attempts to specify the concept of «general principles». The authors propose a classification of provisions that form the legal framework of the current concept of local self-government in modern Russia.

Las Leyes 39 y 40/2015 regulan de forma conjunta la responsabilidad patrimonial y la potestad sancionadora de las Administraciones públicas, integrando la primera de ellas dentro del procedimiento administrativo común a los anteriores procedimientos especiales que recogía la Ley 30/1992; y recogiendo la Ley 40/2015 los principios generales de estas dos instituciones claves del Derecho administrativo. Spanish Laws 39 and 40/2015 jointly regulate the sanctioning powers of public authorities and liability of public administrations, integrating the first one within the common administrative procedure the prior collecting special procedures of Law 30/1992; and collecting the Law 40/2015 the general principles of these two key institutions of administrative law.

[Resumen]: La doctrina ha enfatizado el papel primordial de los principios generales de la contratación pública en la interpretación y aplicación del derecho de los contratos. Para enfocar su estudio se debe partir del artículo 103.1 de la Constitución y del Real Decreto 3/2011 por el que se aprueba el texto refundido de la Ley de Contratos del Sector Público. A su vez, resulta imprescindible analizar la jurisprudencia del TJUE, que se ha preocupado por definir y clarificar su sentido y alcance. Por otro lado, cada vez que una autoridad pública efectúa la adjudicación de un contrato ejerce una repercusión en la realidad social que es imposible eludir. Por ello se debe aunar el respeto a los principios básicos de la contratación con objetivos sociales para paliar las desigualdades y disfunciones existentes desde la perspectiva de la igualdad material del artículo 9.2 de la Constitución. [Abstract:] The doctrine has emphasized the primary role of the general principles of public procurement in the interpretation and application of contract law. In order to focus its study we must start from article 103.1 of the Constitution and the Royal Decree 3/2011 approving the revised text of the Law on Public Sector. Likewise, it is essential to analyze the jurisprudence of the CJEU, which has been concerned with defining and clarifying their meaning and scope. Moreover, whenever a public authority makes the award of a contract exerts an impact on the social reality that is impossible to avoid. Consequently, the respect for the basic principles of contracting must be combined with social objectives in order to alleviate inequalities and dysfunctions from the perspective of material equality of article 9.2 of the Constitution.

El presente estudio, explica la trascendencia de las normas constitucionales principio que orientan el modelo económico del Perú. Para tal efecto, se formula la siguiente interrogante: ¿Por qué los principios generales del régimen económico de la Constitución Política han contribuido con la estabilidad y el crecimiento económico del país? En ese sentido, cabe precisar que la naturaleza del estudio es de tipo explicativo y el método de investigación utilizado es el analítico. Asimismo, se ha recurrido a fuentes bibliográficas que sustentan los principios generales del régimen económico peruano. Para una mejor comprensión del tema propuesto, el contenido se ha estructurado en tres partes: La primera comprende los antecedentes; la segunda, se plantean las principales doctrinas en materia económica y la tercera abarca los principios generales del régimen económico de la Constitución Política del Perú. Luego, se presentan las conclusiones y finalmente, se da a conocer la bibliografía., This study explains the significance of constitutional norms, principles guiding the economic model of Peru. To this end, the following question is asked: Why have the general principles of the economic system of the Constitution contributed to the stability and economic growth of the country?In that regard, it should be noted that the nature of the study is an explanatory type and the research method is analytical. Also, bibliographic sources were used to support the general principles of Peruvian economic regime.For a better understanding of the proposed theme, the content is structured in three parts: The first comprises the background references; the second presents the main doctrines in economic matters and the third covers the general principles of the economic system of the Political Constitution of Peru. Then the conclusions are proposed and finally the bibliography is disclosed.

The abundance of forgiveness research has advanced scientific knowledge of the construct. Its multifaceted nature, however, has created specialization and domain-dependent research (e.g., close-relationship vs. non-relationship forgiveness). The current paper argues that a comprehensive framework that could be applied across domains is needed. The general principles perspective (Higgins, 1990, 1999), which identifies mechanisms that explain both chronic and situational variance, was used as a framework for forgiveness, specifically the mechanisms of accessibility and need for closure. Two studies tested the principles, a two-part study (N = 244 and 78, respectively) and an online survey (N = 214). The two-part study tested chronic accessibility for forgiveness (Accessibility Study One) within the context of the religiosity-forgiveness relationship (an area that has previously produced complex and contradictory results) and both the chronic and situational influence of need for closure (Need for Closure Study). The online survey was designed to test both situational and chronic accessibility (Accessibility Study Two) by priming half of the participants with religious words. Students from a large, Mid-Atlantic university participated. For accessibility, it was proposed that religious individuals would have higher chronic accessibility for forgiveness, because of the emphasis religions place on it; similarly, it was proposed that increasing accessibility for religiosity would increase situational accessibility for forgiveness. Results supported a weak, positive relationship between religiosity and chronic accessibility for forgiveness; however, increased accessibility did not relate to likelihood to forgive future transgressions. For situational accessibility, the religious prime did not successfully influence accessibility for religiosity; thus, situational accessibility could not be tested. For need for closure, it was proposed that forgiveness requires some comfort with uncertainty in order to engage in the process. Therefore, chronic need for closure was expected to negatively relate to likelihood to forgive future transgressions. Results replicated this previously found relationship. For situational need for closure, manipulated through perceived time limitations, it was proposed that it would interact with chronic forgiveness to predict likelihood to forgive, because as need for closure increases so too does automaticity. Forgiveness is arguably an automatic response for someone high in chronic forgiveness. Results did not support the interaction effect. In general, the project supported the chronic influence of the principles but did not support the situational. The limitations of the current project necessitate further inquiry for clarification, though some conclusions are suggested. Results suggest that motivations may be more influential than cognitions in forgiveness, that forgiveness research may require more highly contextualized models, and thus that the potential advantages of a comprehensive framework will require more sophisticated theoretical and empirical work. Ph. D.

Information and Its Role in Hunter-Gatherer Bands explores the question of how information, broadly conceived, is acquired, stored, circulated, and utilized in small-scale hunter-gatherer societies, or bands. Given the nature of this question, the volume brings together a group of scholars from multiple disciplines, including archaeology, ethnography, linguistics, and evolutionary ecology. Each of these specialties deals with the question of information in different ways and with different sets of data given different primacy. The fundamental goal of the volume is to bridge disciplines and subdisciplines, open discussion, and see if some common ground-either theoretical perspectives, general principles, or methodologies-can be developed upon which to build future research on the role of information in hunter-gatherer bands.Series: Ideas, Debates, and Perspectives 5

From the analytical viewpoint a norm can formally be regarded as a right-duty (or claim-obligation) relation (1) that regulates behaviour (action/inaction) (2) among subjects (3) in definite space (4) and time (5). In normative terms, general principles (the ‘basis’) of (international) law can be conceived of as general obligations, i.e. obligations erga omnes (towards everyone). Obligations erga omnes, indivisible or divisible because of their content, link a subject to every other subject of international law, endowed with a correlative claim, so that the whole obligations erga omnes are matched by the whole claims erga omnes of all the subjects of international law. Indivisible obligations erga omnes are unavailable from the viewpoint of the power, so cogentes, breaches violate necessarily all the correlative claims, possibly enabling every subject to invoke the responsibility and impose sanctions. Correspondingly, sanctions should be regarded as indivisible obligations erga omnes, the violation of which allows universal enforcement. Nevertheless, specifically by reason of the gravity of the breach, it is possible to split primary and secondary norms, conceiving of the sanction as a bilateral relation allowing solely reciprocal enforcement in the case of an infringement. Divisible obligations erga omnes are available from the viewpoint of the power, so dispositivae, breaches must be seen as relative, enabling only the subject(s) injured to invoke the responsibility and impose sanctions. Correspondingly, sanctions should be regarded as bilateral obligations, the infringement of which gives rise to reciprocal enforcement. Nevertheless, it is possible to figure out that specifically the gravity of the breach ‘unifies’ the primary divisible obligation, allowing universal invocation of the responsibility, so that the secondary obligation could be either bilateral or a general indivisible one, respectively permitting relative or absolute enforcement in the case of a breach.