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Labor productivity, human capital formation, and income growth decline amid hot ambient temperatures. The implications of such temperature sensitivity for climate change damages depend upon...

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of heat acclimation (HA) on thirst levels, sweat rate, and percentage of body mass loss (%BML), and changes in fluid intake factors throughout HA induction. Twenty-eight male endurance athletes (mean ± SD; age, 35 ± 12 years; body mass, 73.0 ± 8.9 kg; maximal oxygen consumption, 57.4 ± 6.8 ml·kg−1·min−1) completed 60 min of exercise in a euhydrated state at 58.9 ± 2.3% velocity of maximal oxygen consumption in the heat (ambient temperature, 35.0 ± 1.3 °C; relative humidity, 48.0 ± 1.3%) prior to and following HA where thirst levels, sweat rate, and %BML were measured. Then, participants performed 5 days of HA while held at hyperthermia (38.50–39.75 °C) for 60 min with fluid provided ad libitum. Sweat volume, %BML, thirst levels, and fluid intake were measured for each session. Thirst levels were significantly lower following HA (pre, 4 ± 1; post, 3 ± 1, p p = .039) and %BML (pre, 2.66 ± 0.53%; post, 2.98 ± 0.83%, p = .049) were significantly greater following HA. During HA, thirst levels decreased (Day 1, 4 ± 1; Day 2, 3 ± 2; Day 3, 3 ± 2; Day 4, 3 ± 1; Day 5, 3 ± 1; p p = .010) and fluid intake (Day 1, 1.20 ± 0.45 L; Day 2, 1.52 ± 0.58 L; Day 3, 1.69 ± 0.63 L; Day 4, 1.65 ± 0.58 L; Day 5, 1.74 ± 0.51 L; p

The impact of global warming on transpiration and photosynthesis would compromise plant fitness, impacting on crop yields and ecosystem functioning. In this frame, we explored the performance of a set of Arabidopsis mutants carrying partial or total loss-of-function alleles of stomatal development genes and displaying distinct stomatal abundances. Using microscopy and non-invasive imaging techniques on this genotype collection, we examined anatomical leaf and stomatal traits, plant growth and development, and physiological performance at optimal (22 C) and supraoptimal (30 C) temperatures. All genotypes showed thermomorphogenetic responses but no signs of heat stress. Data analysis singled out an extremely low stomatal abundance mutant, spch-5. At 22 C, spch-5 had lower transpiration and warmer leaves than the wild type. However, at 30 C, this mutant developed larger stomata and thinner leaves, paralleled by a notable cooling capacity, similar to that of the wild type. Despite their low stomatal density (SD), spch-5 plants grown at 30 C showed no photosynthesis or growth penalties. The behavior of spch-5 at supra-optimal temperature exemplifies how the effect of very low stomatal numbers can be counteracted by a combination of larger stomata and thinner leaves. Furthermore, it provides a novel strategy for coping with high growth temperatures., AGL2015- 65053-R and PID2019-105362RB-I00 RTI2018-094652-B-I00 Spanish Government RTI2018-094652-B-I00 MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 “ERDF A way of making Europe, PPII10- 0194-4164 and SBPLY/17/180501/000394 Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, UCLM intramural funds, EU FEDER funds

Herein, the principles of homoeostasis are re-visited, but with an emphasis upon repeated homoeostatic disturbances that give rise to physiological adaptation. The central focus is human heat adaptation, and how, for experimental purposes, one might standardise successive adaptation stimuli, and then evaluate and compare the resulting adaptations. To provide sufficient background for that discussion, the principles of physiological control and regulation have been reviewed. The case is presented that, since it is the regulated variables that drive both the effector organs and the processes of physiological adaptation, then it is those variables (e.g., body temperature) that should be used to set and standardise the adaptation stimuli. Alternatively, some have proposed that the same outcome can be achieved through standardising a controlled variable (e.g., heart rate), and so the merits of that proposition are evaluated. Indeed, it can be an effective approach, although some experimental pitfalls are described to highlight its limitations with regard to between-group (e.g., able-bodied versus spinal-injured participants) and between-treatment comparisons (e.g., hot-water versus hot-air adaptation stimuli). The concept of setting the adaptation stimulus relative to an anaerobic or lactate threshold is also critically evaluated. Finally, an appraisal is offered concerning the merits of three different strategies for using deep-body and mean body temperature changes for evaluating thermoeffector adaptations.

In the present study, genome-wide CNVs were detected in a total of 301 samples from 10 Chinese indigenous horse breeds using the Illumina Equine SNP70 Bead Array, and the candidate genes related to adaptability to high temperature and humidity in Jinjiang horses were identified and validated. We determined a total of 577 CNVs ranging in size from 1.06 Kb to 2023.07 Kb on the 31 pairs of autosomes. By aggregating the overlapping CNVs for each breed, a total of 495 CNVRs were detected in the 10 Chinese horse breeds. As many as 211 breed-specific CNVRs were determined, of which 64 were found in the Jinjiang horse population. By removing repetitive CNV regions between breeds, a total of 239 CNVRs were identified in the Chinese indigenous horse breeds including 102 losses, 133 gains and 4 of both events (losses and gains in the same region), in which 131 CNVRs were novel and only detected in the present study compared with previous studies. The total detected CNVR length was 41.74 Mb, accounting for 1.83% of the total length of equine autosomal chromosomes. The coverage of CNVRs on each chromosome varied from 0.47% to 15.68%, with the highest coverage on ECA 12, but the highest number of CNVRs was detected on ECA1 and ECA24. A total of 229 genes overlapping with CNVRs were detected in the Jinjiang horse population, which is an indigenous horse breed unique to the southeastern coast of China exhibiting adaptability to high temperature and humidity. The functional annotation of these genes showed significant relation to cellular heat acclimation and immunity. The expression levels of the candidate genes were validated by heat shock treatment of various durations on fibroblasts of horses. The results show that the expression levels of HSPA1A were significantly increased among the different heat shock durations. The expression level of NFKBIA and SOCS4 declined from the beginning of heat shock to 2 h after heat shock and then showed a gradual increase until it reached the highest value at 6 h and 10 h of heat shock, respectively. Breed-specific CNVRs of Chinese indigenous horse breeds were revealed in the present study, and the results facilitate mapping CNVs on the whole genome and also provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms of adaptation to high temperature and humidity in the Jinjiang horse.

Purpose: To investigate the effects of short-term, high-intensity interval-training (HIIT) heat acclimation (HA). Methods: Male cyclists/triathletes were assigned into either an HA (n = 13) or a comparison (COMP, n = 10) group. HA completed 3 cycling heat stress tests (HSTs) to exhaustion (60% Wmax; HST1, pre-HA; HST2, post-HA; HST3, 7 d post-HA). HA consisted of 30-min bouts of HIIT cycling (6 min at 50% Wmax, then 12 × 1-min 100%-Wmax bouts with 1-min rests between bouts) on 5 consecutive days. COMP completed HST1 and HST2 only. HST and HA trials were conducted in 35°C/50% relative humidity. Cycling capacity and physiological and perceptual data were recorded. Results: Cycling capacity was impaired after HIIT HA (77.2 [34.2] min vs 56.2 [24.4] min, P = .03) and did not return to baseline after 7 d of no HA (59.2 [37.4] min). Capacity in HST1 and HST2 was similar in COMP (43.5 [8.3] min vs 46.8 [15.7] min, P = .54). HIIT HA lowered resting rectal (37.0°C [0.3°C] vs 36.8°C [0.2°C], P = .05) and body temperature (36.0°C [0.3°C] vs 35.8°C [0.3°C], P = .03) in HST2 compared with HST1 and lowered mean skin temperature (35.4°C [0.5°C] vs 35.1°C [0.3°C], P = .02) and perceived strain on day 5 compared with day 1 of HA. All other data were unaffected. Conclusions: Cycling capacity was impaired in the heat after 5 d of consecutive HIIT HA despite some heat adaptation. Based on data, this approach is not recommended for athletes preparing to compete in the heat; however, it is possible that it may be beneficial if a state of overreaching is avoided.

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) ranks as one of the most prevalent insects in food processing and storage facilities worldwide. Heat treatment has been revisited to disinfest food processing and storage facilities due to increasingly strict regulation on chemicals. The effect of acclimation of T. castaneum larvae to sublethal high temperatures of 36 and 42℃ for 10 h on their heat adaptation was investigated, and transcript-level analysis combinating with real-time PCR (RT–qPCR) was applied for elucidating the heat adaptation mechanism of T. castaneum larvae. Short-term sublethal high temperature acclimation could greatly enhance the thermal adaptability in T. castaneum larvae. In total, 575, 875, and 1017 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were, respectively, determined in comparisons between the 28 and 36℃ treatments, the 28 and 42℃ treatments, and the 36 and 42℃ treatments. Fifty-three and 96 genes were commonly up- and down-regulated in both the 36 and 42℃ treatments relative to 28℃, respectively. The results of RT-qPCR analysis further confirmed the RNA-seq analysis. The current results are in favor of enhancing the insecticidal effectiveness of extreme high temperature treatment and elucidating the heat adaptation mechanism in T. castaneum larvae.

Hitzeperioden werden aufgrund des Klimawandels zunehmen und stellen insbesondere fur altere Menschen ein hohes gesundheitliches Risiko dar. Verstarkende Risikofaktoren, wie Immobilitat, Pflegebedurftigkeit, chronische und akute Erkrankungen sowie Medikamenteneinnahme fuhren dazu, dass diese Altersgruppe besonders sensibel auf Hitze reagiert. Pflegefachkrafte und beim Hausarzt tatige medizinische Fachangestellte sind zwei Berufsgruppen, die altere, pflegebedurftige Menschen in Hitzeperioden zu Hause praventiv und kurativ versorgen konnen. Um beide Berufsgruppen fur die Thematik zu sensibilisieren und zu befahigen, auf Hitzeereignisse adaquat zu reagieren, wurde im Rahmen eines 2‑jahrigen Projektes am Klinikum der Universitat Munchen ein interprofessionelles Blended-Learning-Angebot entwickelt. Dieses kombiniert eigenstandiges Lernen mittels online verfugbarer Videos und Prasentationen und die konkrete Wissensanwendung an Fallbeispielen in einer Prasenzphase. Das Konzept, die Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen des im Oktober 2018 abgeschlossenen Projektes werden in diesem Beitrag vorgestellt. Bildungsangebote sind Teil der Anpassung an Hitzeereignisse. In den „Handlungsempfehlungen fur die Erstellung von Hitzeaktionsplanen zum Schutz der menschlichen Gesundheit“ wird festgestellt, dass „Fort- und Weiterbildung von Beschaftigten im Gesundheits- und Sozialwesen dazu beitragen, wichtige Inhalte zum adaquaten Handeln wahrend Hitzeperioden zu vermitteln.“ Dieser Forderung wird mit dem entwickelten Bildungsangebot entsprochen. Um einen moglichst breiten Einsatz zu ermoglichen, stehen die Schulungsmaterialien kostenfrei zur Verfugung. Diese konnen auf der Seite www.klimawandelundbildung.de heruntergeladen werden.

This review discusses the thermal conservative and heat dissipating roles of one of the most sensitive thermoregulatory variables (respiratory rate) with the aim of enhancing its application in evaluating both cold and heat adaptation. During cold exposure, livestock enhance the economy of body heat through reduction in respiratory rate with the extent of reduction being greater and commencing at relatively higher ambient temperature in poorly adapted phenotypes. This is accompanied by an increase in tidal volume and alveolar oxygen uptake, but a decrease in partial pressure of oxygen. On the other hand, heat stress induces increase in respiratory rate to enhance evaporative heat loss with the magnitude of such increase being greater and commencing at relatively lower ambient temperature in phenotypes that are poorly-adapted to heat. This is accompanied by a decrease in tidal volume and the development of hypocapnia. The increase in respiratory rate is observed to be greater, moderate and lesser in livestock that are mainly (pigs, rabbits and poultry), moderately (sheep, goats and Bos taurus) and less (Zebu cattle) dependent on respiratory evaporative heat loss, respectively. The changes during chronic heat stress may cause acid-base crisis in all livestock, in addition to reduction in eggshell quality in birds; due to marked decrease in partial pressure of carbon dioxide and a compensatory increase in elimination of bicarbonate. Within and between breed variations in sensitivity of respiratory rhythm to both cold and heat stress has shown high applicability in identifying phenotypes that are more susceptible to thermal stress; with some cellular and metabolic changes occurring to protect the animal from the consequences of hypo- or hyper-thermia. The information in this review may provide basis for identification of genes that support or suppress thermoregulation and may also be of great use in animal breeding, genomics and selective thermal stress mitigation to provide maximum protection and comfort to poorly-adapted phenotypes.

While bacteriophages have previously been used as a model system to understand thermal adaptation, most adapted genomes observed to date contain very few modifications and cover a limited temperature range. Here, we set out to investigate genome adaptation to thermal stress by adapting six populations of T7 bacteriophage virions to increasingly stringent heat challenges. Further, we provided three of the phage populations’ access to a new genetic code in which Amber codons could be read as selenocysteine, potentially allowing the formation of more stable selenide-containing bonds. Phage virions responded to the thermal challenges with a greater than 10°C increase in heat tolerance and fixed highly reproducible patterns of non-synonymous substitutions and genome deletions. Most fixed mutations mapped to either the tail complex or to the three internal virion proteins that form a pore across the E. coli cell membrane during DNA injection. However, few global changes in Amber codon usage were observed, with only one natural Amber codon being lost. These results reinforce a model in which adaptation to thermal stress proceeds via the cumulative fixation of a small set of highly adaptive substitutions and that adaptation to new genetic codes proceeds only slowly, even with the possibility of potential phenotypic advantages.

The urban environment directly influences the evolution of the Urban Boundary Layer (UBL). Heat adaptation strategies proposed to help cities respond to global change and urban induced warming, are...

The frequency of heat shocks during grain filling of wheat crops across the Australian wheatbelt has significantly increased over the last 30 years. These post-flowering heat events significantly reduce wheat yields with a relatively greater impact on grain size than grain number. A controlled environment study was conducted to assess the impact of post-flowering heat shocks on wheat recombinant inbred lines SB062 and SB003. Plants were submitted to 7-day heat shocks (33/21 °C day/night temperature) at different periods during grain filling. Heat shocks significantly accelerated leaf senescence, with a greater impact on older leaves and for mid post-flowering stresses. Overall, the tolerant line (SB062) could maintain leaf greenness longer than the sensitive line (SB003), especially when submitted to heat stress. Further, heat shocks during early-to-mid grain filling reduced the grain size and weight. While the impact on developing grains was significant in SB003, no significant effect of post-flowering heat was observed on leaf senescence nor on grain size in the tolerant line SB062. Delayed leaf senescence appeared to play a role in maintaining grain size under heat stress. The research findings will assist improving crop models for post-flowering heat effects and developing techniques for screening heat tolerant wheat lines. Increased post-flowering assimilate production through sustained leaf greenness could improve the performance of wheat crops in increasingly warmer environments.

Purpose: Hot-water immersion (HWI) after training in temperate conditions has been shown to induce thermophysiological adaptations and improve endurance performance in the heat; however, the potential additive effects of HWI and training in hot outdoor conditions remain unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of repeated postexercise HWI in athletes training in a hot environment. Methods: A total of 13 (9 female) elite/preelite racewalkers completed a 15-day training program in outdoor heat (mean afternoon high temperature = 34.6°C). Athletes were divided into 2 matched groups that completed either HWI (40°C for 30–40 min) or seated rest in 21°C (CON), following 8 training sessions. Pre–post testing included a 30-minute fixed-intensity walk in heat, laboratory incremental walk to exhaustion, and 10,000-m outdoor time trial. Results: Training frequency and volume were similar between groups (P = .54). Core temperature was significantly higher during immersion in HWI (38.5 [0.3]) than CON (37.8°C [0.2°C]; P 2 uptake, or 10,000-m performance (P > .05). There were significant (P −1), sweat rate (0.34–0.55 L·h−1) and thermal comfort (1.2–1.5 arbitrary units), and 10,000-m racewalking performance time (∼3 min). Conclusions: Both groups demonstrated significant improvement in markers of heat adaptation and performance; however, the addition of HWI did not provide further enhancements. Improvements in adaptation appeared to be maximized by the training program in hot conditions.

HSP70s play crucial roles in plant growth and development, as well as in stress response. Knowledge of the distribution and heat response of HSP70s is important to understand heat adaptation and facilitate thermotolerance improvement in wheat. In this study, we comprehensively analyzed the distribution of HSP70s in hexaploid wheat (TaHSP70s) and its relatives, and we found an obvious expansion of TaHSP70s in the D genome of hexaploid wheat. Meanwhile, a large portion of tandem duplication events occurred in hexaploid wheat. Among the 84 identified TaHSP70s, more than 64% were present as homeologs. The expression profiles of TaHSP70s in triads tended to be expressed more in non-stressful and heat stress conditions. Intriguingly, many TaHSP70s were especially heat responsive. Tandem duplicated TaHSP70s also participated in heat response and growth development. Further HSE analysis revealed divergent distribution of HSEs in the promoter regions of TaHSP70 homeologs, which suggested a distinct heat regulatory mechanism. Our results indicated that the heat response of TaHSP70s may experience a different regulation, and this regulation, together with the expression of tandem duplicated TaHSP70s, may help hexaploid wheat to adapt to heat conditions.

The estimation of heat-related illness cases is a key factor in proposing and implementing suitable intervention strategies and healthcare resource management. This paper proposes new frameworks to estimate the number of patients with heat-related illnesses by administrative wards in Nagoya City using 2014–2019 data. The proposed frameworks are based on the derivation of estimation formulae and machine learning. The daily residual estimation error in the 16 wards was less than one person with both the frameworks. The daily working time average ambient temperature may yield a better correlation than the daily average temperature or daily highest temperature with the number of patients transported by an ambulance from outdoor sites. The results also indicate that patients transported from indoor sites are influenced by earlier ambient conditions over approximately 50 days. In contrast, those transported from outdoor sites are influenced by a relatively short period (20 days), which may correspond to heat adaptation. The frameworks provide a better understanding of the different factors that would lead to an accurate prediction of the number of cases of heat-related patients from weather forecasts. These findings would lead to efficient ambulance allocation as well as public awareness on hot days to suppress heat-related morbidity.

Heat is the deadliest weather-related hazard in the United States. This paper studies municipal heat adaptation using survey and planning data from California. We first analyze the characteristics of municipalities that innovate. Cities with heat-related policies have greater degrees of projected extreme heat, leadership support, environmental justice planning, and smaller Hispanic population shares. We then assess specific policy innovations of six large cities by plan type. Some strategies, including expanding tree canopies, have been widely adopted while others, such as cool walls, are rarely included. Findings suggest that planners can—and should—play a central role in heat adaptation planning.

Breeding small ruminants is an important economic activity in arid and semi-arid regions. This activity has gained more prominence in the present climatic scenario. With increasing global warming, many researchers are analysing how locally adaptive animals maintain homeostasis in regions characterized by high air temperatures. However, there has been no standardization regarding which characteristics should be assessed to determine the adaptive capacity of these animals or included in breeding programmes to improve thermal resistance. Thus, the objectives of this review are: (1) to present an overview of characteristics involved in heat adaptation of highly adapted small ruminants and (2) highlight the characteristics that could be included in breeding programmes to increase the adaptability of herds. Much research has evaluated the immediate response of animals to thermal stress conditions, such as increases in rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and sweating. However, considering that homeostasis represents a condition of balance in a biological system and that animals adapted to the environment are in homeostasis, this review proposes to address the adaptive characteristics acquired over years of exposure to stressful conditions in arid and semiarid regions. These include morphological changes such as coat characteristics, alterations in blood constituents, acid-base balance, such as hormones, haematological and biochemical profiles, as well as advances in genetic assessments.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to study the effect of heat adaptation, pH adjustment, and the combination pretreatments to the resistance of Lactobacillus paracasei SNP2 in heat shock and spray drying. Design/methodology/approach Sub-lethal and lethal temperature range of L. paracasei SNP2 was determined by enumeration of cell survival after incubation at 37-55°C for 30 min. A certain temperature from sub-lethal range was selected for heat adaptation. Heat adaptation (H), pH adjustment (pH), and combination of pretreatments (pH-H) were applied prior to heat shock and spray drying. Findings The selected condition for heat adaptation and heat shock is 44°C, 30 min and 55°C, 15 min, respectively, based on the sub-lethal and lethal temperature range. By heat shock, cells in the whey-sucrose medium showed cell death of 2.05 log cycles, lower than cell death in the MRS medium of 4.84 log cycles. The pretreatments showed slight increase of heat resistance in cell grown in whey sucrose. The effect of H, pH, and pH-H pretreatments highly increase heat resistance of cell grown in MRS indicated by cell death of 4.27, 3.79, and 2.43 log cycles, respectively, which is much lower than control. The pretreatments showed no significant effect to L. paracasei SNP2 survival to spray drying. Originality/value This is the first study of L. paracasei SNP2 resistance to heat shock and spray drying. This paper also enriches information about application of whey sucrose as a growth medium and a heating medium.

Gibson, OR, Willmott, AGB, James, CA, Hayes, M, and Maxwell, NS. Power relative to body mass best predicts change in core temperature during exercise-heat stress. J Strength Cond Res 31(2): 403-414, 2017-Controlling internal temperature is crucial when prescribing exercise-heat stress, particularly during interventions designed to induce thermoregulatory adaptations. This study aimed to determine the relationship between the rate of rectal temperature (Trec) increase, and various methods for prescribing exercise-heat stress, to identify the most efficient method of prescribing isothermic heat acclimation (HA) training. Thirty-five men cycled in hot conditions (40° C, 39% R.H.) for 29 ± 2 minutes. Subjects exercised at 60 ± 9% V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak, with methods for prescribing exercise retrospectively observed for each participant. Pearson product moment correlations were calculated for each prescriptive variable against the rate of change in Trec (° C·h), with stepwise multiple regressions performed on statistically significant variables (p ≤ 0.05). Linear regression identified the predicted intensity required to increase Trec by 1.0-2.0° C between 20- and 45-minute periods and the duration taken to increase Trec by 1.5° C in response to incremental intensities to guide prescription. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) relationships with the rate of change in Trec were observed for prescriptions based on relative power (W·kg; r = 0.764), power (%Powermax; r = 0.679), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (r = 0.577), V[Combining Dot Above]O2 (%V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak; r = 0.562), heart rate (HR) (%HRmax; r = 0.534), and thermal sensation (r = 0.311). Stepwise multiple regressions observed relative power and RPE as variables to improve the model (r = 0.791), with no improvement after inclusion of any anthropometric variable. Prescription of exercise under heat stress using power (W·kg or %Powermax) has the strongest relationship with the rate of change in Trec with no additional requirement to correct for body composition within a normal range. Practitioners should therefore prescribe exercise intensity using relative power during isothermic HA training to increase Trec efficiently and maximize adaptation.

KEY POINTS With the advent of more frequent extreme heat events, adaptability to hot environments will be crucial for the survival of many species, including humans. However, the mechanisms that mediate human heat adaptation have remained elusive. We tested the hypothesis that heat acclimation improves the neural control of body temperature. Skin sympathetic nerve activity, comprising the efferent neural signal that activates heat loss thermoeffectors, was measured in healthy adults exposed to passive heat stress before and after a 7 day heat acclimation protocol. Heat acclimation reduced the activation threshold for skin sympathetic nerve activity, leading to an earlier activation of cutaneous vasodilatation and sweat production. These findings demonstrate that heat acclimation improves the neural control of body temperature in humans. ABSTRACT Heat acclimation improves autonomic temperature regulation in humans. However, the mechanisms that mediate human heat adaptation remain poorly understood. The present study tested the hypothesis that heat acclimation improves the neural control of body temperature. Body temperatures, skin sympathetic nerve activity, cutaneous vasodilatation, and sweat production were measured in 14 healthy adults (nine men and five women, aged 27 ± 5 years) during passive heat stress performed before and after a 7 day heat acclimation protocol. Heat acclimation increased whole-body sweat rate [+0.54 L h-1 (0.32, 0.75), P

This study examines the impact of ambient temperature on emotional well-being in the U.S. population aged 18+. The U.S. is an interesting test case because of its resources, technology and variation in climate across different areas, which also allows us to examine whether adaptation to different climates could weaken or even eliminate the impact of heat on well-being. Using survey responses from 1.9 million Americans over the period from 2008 to 2013, we estimate the effect of temperature on well-being from exogenous day-to-day temperature variation within respondents’ area of residence and test whether this effect varies across areas with different climates. We find that increasing temperatures significantly reduce well-being. Compared to average daily temperatures in the 50–60 °F (10–16 °C) range, temperatures above 70 °F (21 °C) reduce positive emotions (e.g. joy, happiness), increase negative emotions (e.g. stress, anger), and increase fatigue (feeling tired, low energy). These effects are particularly strong among less educated and older Americans. However, there is no consistent evidence that heat effects on well-being differ across areas with mild and hot summers, suggesting limited variation in heat adaptation.

Excessive heat is a health risk, yet previous studies have observed a general decline in sensitivity to heat despite increasing temperatures. Conclusive evidence is lacking on whether long-term changes of this sensitivity can be attributed to specific adaptation measures, such as air conditioning, or should be linked to societal adaptation, such as improved healthcare systems or socioeconomic well-being. The aim of this study was to assess the variation of the association between heat and daily mortality during summer in Japan since the 1970s and to examine the influence of air conditioning (AC) prevalence, healthcare resources, and socioeconomic developments at the prefecture level on this variation. We analyzed daily total, cardiovascular and respiratory disease mortality and temperature data from 1972 to 2010 for 47 prefectures. We used Poisson generalized linear model to estimate the effect of heat on mortality, random effects model to obtain the mean national effect estimates, and meta-regression to explore the impact of prefecture-level characteristics. Average summer temperature has increased across Japan during the 39-year period. Excess mortality attributable to summer heat has decreased, with a national reduction of 20 (95%CI: 17, 22), 21 (95%CI: 18, 25), and 46 (95%CI: 36, 55) cases of total, cardiovascular, and respiratory deaths (per 1000 deaths). The increase of AC prevalence was not associated with a reduction of excess mortality over time. Prefectures and populations with improved economic status documented a larger decline of excess mortality. Healthcare resources were associated with fewer heat-related deaths in the 1970s, but the associations did not persist in the more recent period (i.e., 2006–2010). Excess mortality due to heat has reduced in Japan, suggesting population adaptation. Yet, heat remains a significant health risk. Socioeconomic developments may play a role in heat adaptation. These findings may have implications for ensuring effective prevention of heat-related health impacts.

A hot-spot region of climate change is the Middle East where temperatures actually have a rising tendency and this will increase in future. To mitigate the progressing thermal burden urban planning has to develop adaptation measures. On the basis of micrometeorological simulations for a quarter in Cairo we suggest a decomposition of air temperatures into two temporal and two spatial patterns, respectively explaining 97% and 94% of the temperature variability. We find that land-use has a significant impact on the spatial temperature distribution and should be modified for the purpose of heat adaptation. However, just 13% of the spatial temperature variability are explained by land-use, which is a quite limited impact. Regional weather conditions are the dominant factor for the spatial as well as the temporal development of urban heat.

Cities are particularly sensitive to the effects of climate change, causing an increasing incidence of heat waves. Extreme temperatures can impair the use of public spaces in cities, as heat stress endangers human well-being and health. Identifying suitable adaptation measures to maintain the full functionality of public spaces requires a multidimensional approach, accounting for interrelated scientific, social, and practical aspects. As one result we introduce an inter- and transdisciplinary concept that addresses the challenge of adapting public spaces to climate change. Additionally we present a pilot study from Heidelberg, Germany, where a new, sustainable urban quarter experienced more pronounced heat stress than the historic city centre in the hot and dry summer of 2018. The study shows the suitability of our approach to identify appropriate heat adaptation measures. Solar potential modelling and mental map surveys proved to be particularly effective methods. We find that adaptation measures generate synergy effects by improving both climatic and social conditions.

Purpose: To determine whether combining training in heat with “Live High, Train Low” hypoxia (LHTL) further improves thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses to a heat-tolerance test compared with independent heat training. Methods: A total of 25 trained runners (peak oxygen uptake = 64.1 [8.0] mL·min−1·kg−1) completed 3-wk training in 1 of 3 conditions: (1) heat training combined with “LHTL” hypoxia (H+H; FiO2 = 14.4% [3000 m], 13 h·d−1; train at Results: Submaximal heart rate (effect size [ES] = −0.60 [−0.89; −0.32]) and core temperature (ES = −0.55 [−0.99; −0.10]) were reduced in HOT until 1 wkP. Sweat rate (ES = 0.36 [0.12; 0.59]) and sweat sodium concentration (ES = −0.82 [−1.48; −0.16]) were, respectively, increased and decreased until 3 wkP in HOT. Submaximal heart rate (ES = −0.38 [−0.85; 0.08]) was likely reduced in H+H at 3 wkP, whereas CONT had unclear physiological changes. Perceived exertion and thermal sensation were reduced across all groups. Conclusions: Despite greater physiological stress from combined heat training and “LHTL” hypoxia, thermoregulatory adaptations are limited in comparison with independent heat training. The combined stimuli provide no additional physiological benefit during exercise in hot environments.

This experiment aimed to investigate the efficacy of twice‐daily, nonconsecutive heat acclimation (TDHA) in comparison to once‐daily heat acclimation (ODHA) and work matched once‐ or twice‐daily temperate exercise (ODTEMP, TDTEMP) for inducing heat adaptations, improved exercise tolerance, and cytokine (immune) responses. Forty males, matched biophysically and for aerobic capacity, were assigned to ODHA, TDHA, ODTEMP, or TDTEMP. Participants completed a cycling‐graded exercise test, heat acclimation state test, and a time to task failure (TTTF) at 80% peak power output in temperate (TTTFTEMP: 22°C/40% RH) and hot conditions (TTTFHOT: 38°C/20% RH), before and after 10‐sessions (60 min of cycling at ~2 W·kg−1) in 45°C/20% RH (ODHA and TDHA) or 22°C/40% RH (ODTEMP or TDTEMP). Plasma IL‐6, TNF‐α, and cortisol were measured pre‐ and postsessions 1, 5, and 10. ODHA and TDHA induced equivalent heat adaptations (P 0.05) following ODHA (+14 ± 4%), TDHA (14 ± 8%), ODTEMP (9 ± 10%) or TDTEMP (8 ± 13%). Acute (P 0.05) increases were observed in IL‐6, TNF‐α, or cortisol during ODHA and TDHA, or ODTEMP and TDTEMP. Once‐ and twice‐daily heat acclimation conferred similar magnitudes of heat adaptation and exercise tolerance improvements, without differentially altering immune function, thus nonconsecutive TDHA provides an effective, logistically flexible method of HA, benefitting individuals preparing for exercise‐heat stress.

Exercising in additional or insulative clothing as a strategy to induce heat adaptation has received renewed research interest. While interventions have been referred to as ‘restrictive heat loss a...

Background Heatwave impact on morbidity of people in rural areas has rarely been assessed in prior studies, and recently published literature has documented heatwave impact on a wide spectrum of diseases, for example, ear and eye diseases. Objectives To examine the associations between heatwaves and cause-specific emergency department visits (EDVs) across eight communities in both urban and rural regions throughout Queensland, Australia. Methods Daily data on EDVs, air pollution and climatic conditions during the 1st January 2013 to the 31st December 2015 were obtained from relevant government agencies. Heatwave was defined as ≥ 95th percentile of the mean temperature for three or more consecutive days in each community. A quasi-Poisson generalized additive model with a distributed lag non-linear model was used to assess the heatwave impacts on EDVs. Random effect meta-analysis was performed to investigate the effects of heatwaves on cause-specific EDVs across the urban and rural regions as well as the whole Queensland. The causes of EDVs investigated in this study were infectious and parasitic diseases (ICD code: A00–B99), endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (E00–E90), mental and behavioural disorders (F00–F99), diseases of the nervous system (G00–G99), diseases of the ear and mastoid process (H60–H95), diseases of the circulatory system (I00–I99), diseases of the respiratory system (J00–J99), diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (L00–L99), diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue (M00–M99), diseases of the genitourinary system (N00–N99), and injury, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes (S00–T98). Results The meta-analysis results showed that there were significant effects of heatwaves on total EDVs and a wide-spectrum of cause-specific EDVs. For example, EDVs for endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (RR: 1.18, 95% CI: 1.04 – 1.34), diseases of the nervous system (RR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.02 – 1.17), and diseases of the genitourinary system (RR: 1.05, 95% CI: 1.00 – 1.09) increased substantially during heatwave days. The effect of heatwaves on total EDVs was similar for rural (RR: 1.04, 95% CI: 1.01 – 1.07) and urban regions (RR: 1.04, 95% CI: 1.00 – 1.07). Conclusions A wide range of diseases were sensitive to heatwave impacts. Residents in urban and rural areas were all vulnerable to heatwave impacts, calling for heat adaptation measures to be undertaken in Queensland, Australia.

Elevated temperatures limit plant growth and reproduction and pose a growing threat to agriculture. Plant heat stress response is highly conserved and fine-tuned in multiple pathways. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is a cold tolerant but heat sensitive green leafy vegetable. In this study, heat adaptation mechanisms in a spinach sibling inbred heat-tolerant line Sp75 were investigated using physiological, proteomic, and phosphoproteomic approaches. The abundance patterns of 911 heat stress-responsive proteins, and phosphorylation level changes of 45 phosphoproteins indicated heat-induced calcium-mediated signaling, ROS homeostasis, endomembrane trafficking, and cross-membrane transport pathways, as well as more than 15 transcription regulation factors. Although photosynthesis was inhibited, diverse primary and secondary metabolic pathways were employed for defense against heat stress, such as glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, amino acid metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, nucleotide metabolism, vitamin metabolism, and isoprenoid biosynthesis. These data constitute a heat stress-responsive metabolic atlas in spinach, which will springboard further investigations into the sophisticated molecular mechanisms of plant heat adaptation and inform spinach molecular breeding initiatives.

Passive mild heat acclimation (PMHA) reflects realistic temperature challenges encountered in everyday life. Active heat acclimation, combining heat exposure and exercise, influences several important thermophysiological parameters; for example, it decreases core temperature and enhances heat exchange via the skin. However, it is unclear whether PMHA elicits comparable adaptations. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of PMHA on thermophysiological parameters. Participants were exposed to slightly increased temperatures (∼33°C/22% RH) for 6 h/d over 7 consecutive days. To study physiologic responses before and after PMHA, participants underwent a temperature ramp (UP), where ambient temperature increased from a thermoneutral value (28.8 ± 0.3°C) to 37.5 ± 0.6°C. During UP, core and skin temperature, water loss, cardiovascular parameters, skin blood flow and energy expenditure were measured. Three intervals were selected to compare data before and after PMHA: baseline (minutes 30–55: 28.44 ± 0.21°C), T1 (minutes 105–115: 33.29 ± 0.4°C) and T2 (minutes 130–140: 35.68 ± 0.61°C). After 7 d of PMHA, core (T1: −0.13 ± 0.13°C, P = 0.011; T2: −0.14 ± 0.15°C, P = 0.026) and proximal skin temperature (T1: −0.22 ± 0.29°C, P = 0.029) were lower during UP, whereas distal skin temperature was higher in a thermoneutral state (baseline: +0.74 ± 0.77°C, P = 0.009) and during UP (T1: +0.49 ± 0.76°C, P = .057 (not significant), T2:+0.51 ± 0.63°C, P = .022). Moreover, water loss was reduced (−30.5 ± 33.3 ml, P = 0.012) and both systolic (−7.7 ± 7.7 mmHg, P = 0.015) and diastolic (−4.4 ± 4.8 mmHg, P = 0.001) blood pressures were lowered in a thermoneutral state. During UP, only systolic blood pressure was decreased (T2: −6.1 ± 4.4 mmHg, P = 0.003). Skin blood flow was significantly decreased at T1 (−28.35 ± 38.96%, P = 0.037), yet energy expenditure remained unchanged. In conclusion, despite the mild heat stimulus, we show that PMHA induces distinct thermophysiological adaptations leading to increased resilience to heat.

We have studied the potential of environmental adaptation as a survival mechanism to enable lactic acid bacteria to withstand spray drying. The formulation process of these bacteria exposes them to stresses such as heating and dehydration on daily basis. In the present study, the effect of heat adaptation on subsequent exposure of Lactobacillus lactis subsp. lactis HE-1 cells to various types of lethal stress was examined by comparing the viability of heat-adapted cells with nonadapted ones. The responses of heat-adapted cells to other environmental stresses such as H2O2, heat, acid, and ethanol were also examined. The results showed that heat-adapted cells had a higher survival rate than the non-adapted cells. Morphological analysis was performed to explain the observed differences. The adaptation mechanisms in response to stresses in L. lactis subsp. lactis HE-1 are to be fundamental for survival during spray drying process.

Objective Hydration status is critical to physiological and cognitive health, yet it is unclear how populations living in hot-humid environments experiencing lifestyle transitions manage this underexplored facet of heat adaptation. This study assesses the predictors of repeated measures of hydration status for adults from two villages (close and distant from a market town) in the Bolivian Amazon. Materials and Methods Interviews and focal follows were conducted with 36 Tsimane’ (50% male). Urine samples, temperature, activity levels, and anthropometrics were measured pre-interview and post-follow and yielded a small panel (72 observations). Urine samples were analyzed for urine specific gravity (USG), a biomarker of hydration, with a refractometer. Results The mean USG was 1.020 g/ml (SD ± 0.008) with men (1.022 ± 0.008) slightly more dehydrated than women (1.018 ± 0.007). Using 1.020 as the criteria for clinical dehydration, 42% of the participants were dehydrated at both intervals and 21% were extremely dehydrated. Controlling for activity level, village membership, and covariates in random-effects linear regression models, each degree centigrade increase was associated with a USG increase of 0.0008 g/ml (P = 0.000). Adults from the village closer to the market town had significantly higher USG (B = 0.0041; P = 0.04) than those in the distant village. Dehydration was predicted to occur at 29°C, just above the thermoneutral range, and extreme dehydration at 37°C. Discussion These findings suggest that hotter temperatures coupled with lifestyle transitions may create conditions that increase vulnerability to dehydration among rural populations through landscape modifications and diet changes. Am J Phys Anthropol 158:696–707, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The aim of this experiment was to quantify physiological and perceptual responses to exercise with and without restrictive heat loss attire in hot and temperate conditions. Ten moderately-trained individuals (mass; 69.44±7.50 kg, body fat; 19.7±7.6%) cycled for 30-mins (15-mins at 2 W.kg(−1) then 15-mins at 1 W.kg(−1)) under four experimental conditions; temperate (TEMP, 22°C/45%), hot (HOT, 45°C/20%) and, temperate (TEMP(SUIT), 22°C/45%) and hot (HOT(SUIT), 45°C/20%) whilst wearing an upper-body “sauna suit”. Core temperature changes were higher (P

Unequivocal enhancement of cutaneous vasomotor function has yet to be demonstrated following heat acclimation, possibly because the adaptation stimulus was not sustained, or because thermoeffector function was not assessed at equivalent deep-body temperatures. Therefore, forearm and local cutaneous vascular conductances were evaluated during exercise eliciting matched deep-body temperatures (37.5 °C, 38.5 °C), before and after isothermal heat acclimation. Both indices increased (21% and 25%), confirming cutaneous vasomotor adaptation can occur, provided those experimental design specifications are satisfied.

Extreme environmental conditions present athletes with diverse challenges; however, not all sporting events are limited by thermoregulatory parameters. The purpose of this leading article is to identify specific instances where hot environmental conditions either compromise or augment performance and, where heat acclimation appears justified, evaluate the effectiveness of pre-event acclimation processes. To identify events likely to be receptive to pre-competition heat adaptation protocols, we clustered and quantified the magnitude of difference in performance of elite athletes competing in International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championships (1999-2011) in hot environments (25 °C) with those in cooler temperate conditions (25 °C). Athletes in endurance events performed worse in hot conditions (~3 % reduction in performance, Cohen's d0.8; large impairment), while in contrast, performance in short-duration sprint events was augmented in the heat compared with temperate conditions (~1 % improvement, Cohen's d0.8; large performance gain). As endurance events were identified as compromised by the heat, we evaluated common short-term heat acclimation (≤7 days, STHA) and medium-term heat acclimation (8-14 days, MTHA) protocols. This process identified beneficial effects of heat acclimation on performance using both STHA (2.4 ± 3.5 %) and MTHA protocols (10.2 ± 14.0 %). These effects were differentially greater for MTHA, which also demonstrated larger reductions in both endpoint exercise heart rate (STHA: -3.5 ± 1.8 % vs MTHA: -7.0 ± 1.9 %) and endpoint core temperature (STHA: -0.7 ± 0.7 % vs -0.8 ± 0.3 %). It appears that worthwhile acclimation is achievable for endurance athletes via both short-and medium-length protocols but more is gained using MTHA. Conversely, it is also conceivable that heat acclimation may be counterproductive for sprinters. As high-performance athletes are often time-poor, shorter duration protocols may be of practical preference for endurance athletes where satisfactory outcomes can be achieved.

Extreme heat is one of the most important global causes of weather-related mortality, and climate change is leading to more frequent and intense heat waves. Recent epidemiologic findings on heat-related health impacts have reinforced our understanding of mortality impacts of extreme heat and have shown a range of impacts on morbidity outcomes including cardiovascular, respiratory and mental health responses. Evidence is also emerging on temporal trends towards decreasing exposure-response, probably reflecting autonomous population adaptation. Many cities are actively engaged in the development of heat adaptation plans to reduce future health impacts. Epidemiologic research into the evolution of local heat-health responses over time can greatly aid adaptation planning for heat, prevention of adverse health outcomes among vulnerable populations, as well as evaluation of new interventions. Such research will be facilitated by the formation of research partnerships involving epidemiologists, climate scientists, and local stakeholders.

Na agricultura, uma boa tomada de decisão é sempre baseada em uma imagemclara da realidade, a qual pode ser representada por um modelo. A simulação matemática emciências agrárias permite, por exemplo, prever resultados de diferentes técnicas de manejosou de uma determinada condição ambiental. Avaliou-se neste trabalho o crescimento dasoja (Glycine max (L.) Merryl) variedade BRS Tracajá exposta às condições naturais decampo do leste da Amazônia durante os anos de 2006 e 2008, utilizando a escala térmicacomo variável independente. As condições climáticas entre os anos do experimento foramsimilares. O máximo IAF alcançado no experimento de 2006 foi de 7,2 aos 70 dias após asemeadura (DAS), enquanto que em 2008 o máximo valor foi de 6,5 aos 67 DAS. A máximaprodução de matéria seca (MS), antes da maturação fi siológica, foi de 1.024 e 995 g m–2em 2006 e 2008, respectivamente. Modelos empíricos foram ajustados às curvas de IAF eMS geradas nos experimentos de 2006 e 2008, em função do tempo térmico, e validadoscom os dados obtidos nos experimentos de 2008 e 2006, respectivamente, e apresentaramótimo desempenho, reproduzindo de forma satisfatória os dados nas condições climáticasobservadas.

Improvements in fitness from a brief period of physical training may elicit sufficient physiological adaptations to decrease thermal strain during exercise in the heat. This study tested heat adaptation from short-term endurance (ET) and sprint-interval (SIT) training in moderately fit individuals. The ET group (n = 8) cycled at 65% [Formula: see text] for 8 sessions (4 sessions each at 60 and 90 min, respectively) over two weeks, while the SIT group (n = 8) performed repeated 30-s Wingate sprints (resistance 7.5% body mass; 4 sessions each of 4 and 5 sprints, respectively). [Formula: see text] and heat stress testing (HST; 60 min cycling at 65% [Formula: see text] at 35ºC, 40% relative humidity) were performed pre- and post-training. [Formula: see text]increased by 11% (p = 0.025) and 14% (p = 0.020) for the ET and SIT groups post-training, respectively. Thermal stress was similar pre- and post-training, with no significant difference in the rate of whole-body metabolic heat production (p = 0.106) for either group post-training. Cardiovascular improvement was evident with both ET and SIT, with a significant mean decrease (p = 0.014) in HR for both groups (ET: 146 ± 15 beats·min(-1)pre vs. 142 ± 12 beats·min(-1)post; SIT: 149 ± 15 beats·min(-1)pre vs. 146 ± 12 beats·min(-1)post) during the HST post-training. However, mean sweat loss (p = 0.248) and the rise in core temperature (p = 0. 260) did not change significantly comparing pre- and post-training HST. While short-term ET and SIT both induced significant improvements in aerobic fitness and decreased cardiovascular strain, neither elicited improved thermal responses during exercise in the heat and do not replace heat acclimatization.

A systematic study about the intrinsic resistance of 29 strains (26 autochthonous and 3 commercial ones), belonging to Leuconostoc genus, against diverse stress factors (thermal, acidic, alkaline, osmotic and oxidative) commonly present at industrial or conservation processes were evaluated. Exhaustive result processing was made by applying one-way ANOVA, Student's test (t), multivariate analysis by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Matrix Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. In addition, heat adaptation on 4 strains carefully selected based on previous data analysis was assayed. The strains revealed wide diversity of resistance to stress factors and, in general, a clear relationship between resistance and Leuconostoc species was established. In this sense, the highest resistance was shown by Leuconostoc lactis followed by Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains, while Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides and Leuconostoc citreum strains revealed the lowest resistance to the stress factors applied. Heat adaptation improved thermal cell survival and resulted in a cross–resistance against the acidic factor. However, all adapted cells showed diminished their oxidative resistance. According to our knowledge, this is the first study regarding response of Leuconostoc strains against technological stress factors and could establish the basis for the selection of “more robust” strains and propose the possibility of improving their performance during industrial processes. Fil: D'Angelo, Luisa. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Lactología Industrial. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Ingeniería Química. Instituto de Lactología Industrial; Argentina Fil: Cicotello, Joaquín. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Lactología Industrial. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Ingeniería Química. Instituto de Lactología Industrial; Argentina Fil: Zago, Miriam. Crea-consiglio Per la Ricerca In Agricoltura E L'analisi Dell'economia Agrari; Fil: Guglielmotti, Daniela Marta. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Lactología Industrial. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Ingeniería Química. Instituto de Lactología Industrial; Argentina Fil: Quiberoni, Andrea del Lujan. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Lactología Industrial. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Ingeniería Química. Instituto de Lactología Industrial; Argentina Fil: Suárez, Viviana Beatriz. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe. Instituto de Lactología Industrial. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Facultad de Ingeniería Química. Instituto de Lactología Industrial; Argentina

The underground gold mines of South Africa offer a unique historical setting to study heat acclimation. The early heat stress research was conducted and described by a young medical officer, Dr. Aldo Dreosti. He developed practical and specific protocols to first assess the heat tolerance of thousands of new mining recruits, and then used the screening results as the basis for assigning a heat acclimation protocol. The mines provide an interesting paradigm where the prevention of heat stroke evolved from genetic selection, where only Black natives were recruited due to a false assumption of their intrinsic tolerance to heat, to our current appreciation of the epigenetic and other molecular adaptations that occur with exposure to heat.

Imprinting of such training by the appropriate systems of an individual. Heat training causes a training epigenetic heat adaptation in chickens, but not always for a long time. More over, the heat training in the first half of incubation, when embryos are essentially poikilothermic, is unreasonable. In order to maintain the reaction, achieved through the training, an intensity of thermal factor must be modified wave-like. A need to study the characteristics of integration and the reactivity of stress-limiting systems, as well as critical periods and patterns of heat training imprinting at various stages of ontogenesis is discussed. As a result, the management techniques can be developed to control the activity of appropriate systems and home-ostasis and ensure the welfare of birds in industrial poultry farming and under climate change.