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Maternal oral health has been strongly linked to the health of the mother and baby. Maintaining good oral hygiene is crucial to a healthy pregnancy term (George et al., 2010). It is therefore appropriate to explore the social cognitive constructs that are associated with pregnant women’s oral hygiene behaviours. The current study aims to: (a) Identify the social cognitive constructs that predict oral hygiene behaviours in pregnant women; (b) Identify the unique effects of each social cognitive construct on mechanical oral hygiene behaviours in pregnant women using meta-analytic path analysis; (c) Identify the mediators (e.g. planning) and moderators (e.g. age, gender, type of behaviour, study design) of the effects of the social cognitive constructs on oral hygiene behaviours in pregnant women.

In the context of the current novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, researchers have applied social cognition models to identify the modifiable predictors of behaviors aimed at preventing the transmission of the coronavirus that causes COVID-19, such as social distancing, hand washing, and use of facemasks and other personal protective equipment (PPE). Such research has value as it may identify potential targets for behavior interventions aimed at promoting participation in these preventive behaviors to minimize rates of infection. In addition, these behaviors are not only relevant to the prevention of the spread of COVID-19, but also to the prevention of other similar respiratory infections, such as the common cold and influenza. In the context of the pandemic, it is timely to investigate the extent to which social cognition models are effective in explaining variance in individuals’ participation in these preventive behaviors. In the present study, we aim to quantitatively synthesize relations between constructs derived from key social cognition theories and these preventive behaviors using meta-analysis. This research will provide government and policy makers, healthcare practitioners, and scientists and researchers with cumulative evidence of the constructs that are consistently related to these behaviors and assist in estimating the true variability of these relations once methodological artefacts (sampling error) have been corrected for. The extent of the variability may provide an indication of whether the relations are consistent across illnesses (e.g., influenza, common cold, COVID-19) or whether moderator variables exists. The research has value in that it will not only assist in informing intervention targets, but also demonstrate whether interventions targeting particular social cognition constructs will be effective regardless of the illness. This is particularly important in the midst of the current pandemic given the very real threat of a ‘second wave’ of COVID-19 infections and also the risks of parallel outbreaks of influenza and other common respiratory infections that may exacerbate the human and economic burden on healthcare provision. It may also inform future interventions to promote preventive behaviors in the event of future pandemics.

Educators in university settings are increasingly concerned with identifying new and innovative ways of improving student engagement (Millican, 2014). This is especially important in current times due to many teaching activities moving online due to COVID-19. Improving student engagement is important as prior research indicates that engagement is positively associated with both perceived learning and objective learning outcomes (e.g., course grades; Shernof et al., 2017). This is particularly true for students completing their first year of university as poor performance and low self-perceptions of course engagement can have short-term effects on student retention (Ketonen et al., 2016) and long-term effects on students’ choice of career (Grier-Reed et al., 2012). One way to improve student engagement and, therefore, enhance student learning and retention, may be to target students’ planning. Planning is a key self-regulatory activity that impacts on the intention-behavior relationship (Gollwitzer, 1999; Schwarzer & Hamilton, 2020). Plans specify the situational context in which one will enact them to ensure that behavioral performance is achieved (i.e., the what, where, when, and how to enact an intended behaviour). This detail allows the individual to mentally link the intended behaviour with a particular context for its enactment, thus connecting the individual with good opportunities to act as the critical situation becomes highly accessible, enabling the behavior to be performed without much effort and attention of the individual. It is suggested that the advantages of planning interventions include low cost and response burden (Hagger & Luszczynska, 2014), which is especially important for students who are often juggling multiple commitments. Planning interventions have been found to be effective across a range of behaviors, including academic work behaviours (Carver & Scheier, 1981; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002; Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2000), with meta-analytic research showing a notable medium effect size for planning on health behaviors (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). The overarching aim of this study is to test a planning intervention to improve student engagement in a core first-year psychology course during a university academic term (Trimester 2, 2020). At the university where the study will be conducted, a trimester is a 12-week academic term, where classes are scheduled in 11 of the 12 weeks. This study will use a randomised controlled trial design with two groups: an intervention group and a control group. The proposed planning intervention will use methods supported by theory to improve student engagement with the course. The expected outcomes of this study will provide support for the use of online interventions in the higher education setting and additional insight into the effects of planning-based interventions aimed at increasing student engagement.

This project is about the development and validation of Swimming Competence Questionnaire

Supplementary Materials for Hamilton et al. (2019)

A pre-registration of a meta-analytic review of the relative effects of implicit and explicit attitudes on behavior by Daniel Phipps, Martin Hagger, and Kyra Hamilton.

Achieving broad immunity through vaccination is a cornerstone strategy for long-term management of COVID-19 infections, particularly the prevention of serious cases and hospitalizations. Evidence that vaccine-induced immunity wanes over time points to the need for COVID-19 booster vaccines, and maximum compliance is required to maintain population-level immunity. Little is known of the correlates of intentions to receive booster vaccines among previously vaccinated individuals. The present study applied an integrated model to examine effects of beliefs from multiple social cognition theories alongside sets of generalized, stable beliefs on individuals' booster vaccine intentions. US residents (N = 479) recruited from an online survey panel completed measures of social cognition constructs (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and risk perceptions), generalized beliefs (vaccine hesitancy, political orientation, and free will beliefs), and COVID-19 vaccine intentions. Social cognition constructs were related to booster vaccine intentions, with attitude and subjective norms exhibiting the largest effects. Effects of vaccine hesitancy, political orientation, and free will beliefs on intentions were mediated by the social cognition constructs, and only vaccine hesitancy had a small residual effect on intentions. Findings provide preliminary evidence that contributes to an evidence base of potential targets for intervention messages aimed at promoting booster vaccine intentions. peerReviewed

Drowning is one of the leading causes of unintentional death, accounting for 7% of injury related deaths worldwide (Franklin et al., 2020). Scholars have therefore sought to investigate the factors which precipitate unintentional drowning with the ultimate goal of creating evidence-based behaviour change strategies. One key avenue for such research is the investigation of the beliefs and cognitions which predict individuals’ intentions to engage in behaviours which exacerbate or reduce their risk of drowning. For example, by investigating the predictors of behaviours such as wearing a life jacket, drinking alcohol near water, or enrolling one’s child in formal swimming education (Hamilton, Keech, et al., 2018; Hamilton, Demant, et al., 2020; Hamilton, Keech, et al., 2020; Peden, Demant, et al., 2018; Peden, Smith, et al., 2018). The aforementioned evidence naturally has inherent value in understanding a range of behaviours, and has in turn been extended into the testing and creation of several theory based public health strategies and behaviour change interventions (Hamilton et al., 2022; Hamilton, Keech, et al., 2018; Hamilton, Peden, et al., 2018; Hatfield et al., 2012). However, despite the value of individual studies, to date there is yet to be an empirical synthesis of the evidence regarding the social cognition predictors of unintentional drowning behaviours. The current research aims to provide such a synthesis, and to provide a more accurate estimate of the predictive effects of social cognition on unintentional drowning behaviours, while controlling for study specific effects and investigating pertinent methodological and theory-based moderators.

The importance of personal hygiene practices for preventing the transmission of pathogens is particularly relevant during the current COVID-19 pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended specific behavioural practices to limit the spread of the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 (REF). People are encouraged to protect themselves by washing their hands regularly with soap and water; and avoiding touching their face, including eyes, nose, and mouth. This is to avoid infection through transfer of the virus from contaminated surfaces to the face or mouth by touching. The key question in health behaviour research is how to increase the adoption and maintenance of these hand hygiene behaviours. Although intention to engage in these behaviours may by high among the general population, especially given the heightened threat of infection from this novel virus, previous research has demonstrated that individuals do not always enact their intentions. The present research aims to use a theory-based intervention to promote effective adoption and maintenance of hand hygiene behaviour to prevent the spread of the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. The study will use an implementation imagery intervention strategy to promote hand hygiene behaviour in the context of avoiding face touching with unwashed hands, as recommended by the WHO for preventing pathogen transmission (REF). The intervention will draw upon two commonly used social psychological models that propose the determinants of social and health behaviours; the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991) and Health Action Process Approach (HAPA; Schwarzer, 2008; Schwarzer & Hamilton, 2020). The models will inform the intervention content and to explain the mechanisms behind the proposed effects. The present study builds on our previous research that supports the predictions of the TPB and HAPA in the context of health behaviours, including hand hygiene behaviour (Reyes Fernández, Knoll, Hamilton, & Schwarzer, 2016; Zhang, Fang, Zhang, Hagger, & Hamilton, 2020). This research has identified key potentially modifiable determinants of health behaviour that can be targeted in interventions. The intervention will combine strategies that are closely matched with the determinants in the motivational phases of the TPB and volitional phases of the HAPA, including persuasive communication, implementation intentions, and mental imagery. The implementation imagery method used in this study was developed by the research team and has been successfully applied in several studies to date (e.g., Hamilton, Keech, Peden, & Hagger, 2019; Hamilton, Keech, Peden, & Hagger, under review; Keech, Hamilton, & Hagger, in press). The intervention will be evaluated in an online randomized-controlled trial. The intervention will be embedded in an online survey which will be administered to a sample of the general population. The intervention will provide participants with information followed by a series of self-enacted exercises in which they are promoted to adopt the theory-based strategies likely to change their behaviour (e.g., actively making plans to enact the behaviour, imagining the specific steps required to attain the goal, mentally rehearsing the feelings that a person has when they have succeeded in performing an intended behaviour). The aim is to test the efficacy of a brief, potentially cost effective, theory-based intervention that involves minimal direct contact between participant and practitioner, and that will use resources that can easily be implemented in real-world settings. The intervention will target the behaviour of avoiding face touching with unwashed hands. This definition is based on survey tool recommendations provided by the World Health Organisation for behavioural insight studies related to COVID-19 (WHO, 2020). The rationale for targeting this behaviour is that once contaminated through touching surfaces that potentially harbor the virus in the course of daily living, hands can transfer the virus to individuals’ eyes, nose, or mouth and infect them.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had unprecedented health, economic, and social consequences worldwide. Although contact reductions and wearing face coverings have reduced infection rates, and vaccines have reduced illness severity, emergence of new variants of the coronavirus that causes COVID-19, and the shift from pandemic to endemic patterns of infection, highlights the importance of ongoing preventive behavior adherence to manage future outbreaks. Research applying social cognition theories may assist in explaining variance in these behaviors and inform the development of efficacious behavior change interventions to promote adherence. In the present article, we summarize research applying these theories to identify modifiable determinants of COVID-19 preventive behaviors and the mechanisms involved, and their utility in informing interventions. We identify limitations of these applications (e.g., overreliance on correlational data, lack of long-term behavioral follow-up), and suggest how they can be addressed. We demonstrate the virtue of augmenting theories with additional constructs (e.g., moral norms, anticipated regret) and processes (e.g., multiple action phases, automatic processes) to provide comprehensive, parsimonious behavioral explanations. We also outline how the theories contribute to testing mechanisms of action of behavioral interventions. Finally, we recommend future studies applying these theories to inform and test interventions to promote COVID-19 preventive behavior adherence. peerReviewed

Within industrialised societies, health-risk behaviours, such as high levels of sedentary behaviour, have been identified as leading causes of disease-related preventable deaths (Amler & Eddins, 1987; Conner & Norman, 2015; Mokdad et al., 2016; Noble, Paul, Turon, & Oldmeadow, 2015; Nylander, 2016; Organization, 2015). With the increase in technology and decrease in physically demanding jobs, high levels of sedentary behaviour and a general disengagement in physical activity are major global health concerns (Borodulin, Laatikainen, Juolevi, & Jousilahti, 2008; Brownson, Boehmer, & Luke, 2005; Bull et al., 2020; Kirk & Rhodes, 2011; Matthews et al., 2008; Organization, 1998; Straker & Mathiassen, 2009). A particular subset of the population at risk of these concerns are those working in highly sedentary jobs, such as office workers. Office workers are at particularly high risk for developing conditions related to sedentary behaviour (Emanuele, 2008; Hemingway, Shipley, Stansfeld, & Marmot, 1997; Higham, 2019; Hitosugi, Niwa, & Takatsu, 2000; Loh & Redd, 2008). Also, as office workers often spend a large proportion of their day engaging in sedentary behaviour at work, the workplace has become an opportunistic environment for targeting health-related behaviours (Dugdill, Brettle, Hulme, McCluskey, & Long, 2008; Parry & Straker, 2013; Rhodes & De Bruijn, 2010; Salmon, Owen, Crawford, Bauman, & Sallis, 2003). Social cognition theories, such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB –Ajzen, 1991), have been applied widely to understand the determinants of sedentary behaviour and physical activity (McEachan, Conner, Taylor, & Lawton, 2011; Prapavessis, Gaston, & DeJesus, 2015). Central to many of these models is the premise that intention, which is assumed to be guided by conscious deliberation, is the most proximal predictor of behaviour, with the stronger the intention the more likely the behaviour will be acted on (Ajzen, 1991; Armitage & Conner, 2001; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Hagger, Cheung, Ajzen, & Hamilton, 2022; Hamilton, van Dongen, & Hagger, 2020; McEachan et al., 2011; Symons Downs & Hausenblas, 2005). However, it is well documented that the link between intention and behaviour is not perfect and that there remains an intention-behaviour gap (Rhodes & de Bruijn, 2013). More recently, literature has looked at incorporating constructs that underpin nonconscious processes, such as habit and implicit attitudes, into models predicting sedentary behaviour and physical activity and found these more automatic, nonconscious constructs to be important contributors to behaviour (Brand & Ekkekakis, 2018; Conroy, Maher, Elavsky, Hyde, & Doerksen, 2013; Gardner, de Bruijn, & Lally, 2011; Phipps, Hannan, Rhodes, & Hamilton, 2021; Rhodes, 2021; Rollo, Gaston, & Prapavessis, 2016). Habit is defined as a psychological construct that is dependent on associations forming between consistent contextual cues and repeated behaviours (Hagger, 2019; Lally & Gardner, 2013; Webb & de Bruin, 2020). A key feature of habitual actions is that they require less cognitive processing in comparison to intentional behaviours, making the behaviour more accessible to perform (Förster & Jostmann, 2015; Wood, 2017). By focusing on forming habitual responses to cues within the environment that promote physical movement (i.e., stairs), one can increase the amount of movement performed during the day, thus limiting sedentary behaviour without taxing cognitive load (Hamilton, Fraser, & Hannan, 2019). Furthermore, as simple behaviours are more conducive to habit formation, they also require less time to reach habit plateau (Lally et al., 2010). As time constraints are often an influencing factor for attrition in physical activity interventions, this structure offers a unique method to counter this barrier (Dugdill et al., 2008; Malik, Blake, & Suggs, 2014; Salmon et al., 2003). Literature looking at developing interventions that are aimed at developing habits around performing physical movement should focus on four key aspects: the target behaviour is personally relevant; the target behaviour is considered a simple change to implement within pre-existing practices; the target behaviour is realistic to action; and the target behaviour can be monitored and assessed against behavioural goals (Gardner, Lally, & Rebar, 2020; Gardner et al., 2014). Furthermore, when developing interventions, previous literature has looked at implementation techniques, comparing internet-based to in person delivery modes. While there appears to be advantages and disadvantages for each method, an internet-based delivery mode offers potential methods for countering common barriers associated with physical activity interventions, such as time constraints. As these barriers contribute to poor attrition rates within physical activity interventions, online interventions provide flexible delivery modes with the added opportunity to reach wider populations (Cugelman, Thelwall, & Dawes, 2011; Wantland, Portillo, Holzemer, Slaughter, & McGhee, 2004).

Despite being a highly preventable disease, early childhood caries (ECC) is the most common chronic disease in childhood (AIHW, 2020). ECC is a global public health burden that remains prevalent in preschoolers worldwide (Chen et al., 2019; El Tantawi et al., 2018). Removal of dental biofilm (i.e. plaque) through toothbrushing is the most effective home care preventive intervention to maintain oral health (Van Der Weijden & Slot, 2011; WHO, 2018). To prevent ECC, it is recommended that parents supervise and assist young children to brush their teeth twice-daily until the age of at least 5 years (AIHW, 2012; Do, 2020). However, there is evidence that parents are failing to satisfactorily adhere to these recommended behavioural guidelines (RCHM, 2018). Parents generally have a high level of motivation to act in the best interests of their children’s health and safety (Hagger & Hamilton, 2019; Hamilton et al., 2013, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020; Keech et al., 2018; Walsh et al., 2015), including their oral hygiene behaviour (Hamilton et al., 2018). However, previous research has demonstrated that intentions do not always translate into behaviour (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009; McEachan et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2019). The present research aims to use a theory-based intervention to promote effective adoption and maintenance of twice-daily parental supervised toothbrushing. The design of the intervention is guided by the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA; Schwarzer, 2008; Schwarzer & Hamilton, 2020), which will inform the intervention content and explain the mechanisms behind the proposed effects. The present study builds on our previous research that supports the predictions of the HAPA in the context of parental supervised toothbrushing (Smith et al., n.d., 2020). This research has identified key potentially modifiable determinants of health behaviour that can be targeted in interventions: self-efficacy, planning, and action control. The intervention will combine strategies that are closely matched with the determinants in the motivational and volitional phases of the HAPA, including instruction on how to perform the behaviour (self-efficacy), implementation intentions (planning), and mental imagery for monitoring the behaviour (action control). The intervention will be evaluated in an online randomized-controlled trial. The intervention will be embedded in an online survey which will be administered to a sample of parents from the general population recruited using a panel company. The intervention will provide participants with information followed by a series of self-enacted exercises in which they are promoted to adopt the theory-based strategies likely to change their behaviour (e.g., actively making plans to enact the behaviour, mentally rehearsing the specific steps required to attain the goal). The intervention will target the behaviour of regular parental supervised toothbrushing. The aim is to test the efficacy of a brief, potentially cost effective, theory-based intervention that involves minimal direct contact between participant and practitioner, and that will use resources that can easily be implemented in real-world settings. The present randomised controlled trial will use an additive design in which parents of preschool-aged children are randomly assigned to an active control [education] arm, or one of the three experimental arms (the self-efficacy and education [self-efficacy plus] group; the planning, self-efficacy, and education [planning plus] group; or the action control, planning, self-efficacy, and education [action control plus] group).

Objective: Past behavior has been consistently shown to predict and explain future behavior. It has been proposed that past behavior effects reflect both reasoned-action and automatic processes. The current study sought to explore the mediation of past behavior-future behavior relationship via constructs representing these processes across three populations and behaviors: binge drinking in university students, flossing in adults, and parental sun safety behavior of children 2 – 5 years of age. Furthermore, this study used a measure of past behavior that combined long-term, recent, and routine patterns of behavioral engagement. Methods. A prospective design with two waves of data collection spaced six weeks apart was adopted. Participants (Total N = 754) completed an initial survey containing measures of past behavior (frequency, recency, and routine), social cognition (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control), and behavioral automaticity. Six weeks later, participants (N = 454) completed a self-report measure of behavior and behavioral automaticity. Results. Structural equation modelling revealed that automatic, but not reasoned-action processes, mediated the past-to-future relationship, across the three behaviors. Results further revealed that long-term, recent, and routine patterns of behavioral engagement were highly correlated and indicated a second-order past behavior latent variable. Conclusions. While both reasoned-action and automatic factors can predict a range of health behaviors, automatic processes appear to explain the effect of past behavior on future behavior. Further investigations should focus on exploring the role of other non-conscious and automatic processes such as counter-intentional habits and implicit beliefs in explaining engagement in heath behaviors.

Excess intake of ‘free sugars’ is a key predictor of chronic disease, obesity, and dental ill health. Given the importance of determining modifiable predictors of free sugar-related dietary behaviors, we applied the integrated behavior change model to predict free sugar limiting behaviors. The model includes constructs representing ‘reasoned’ or deliberative processes that lead to action (e.g., social cognition constructs, intentions), and constructs representing ‘non-conscious’ or implicit processes (e.g., implicit attitudes, behavioral automaticity) as predictors of behavior. Undergraduate students (N = 205) completed measures of autonomous and controlled motivation, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) measures of explicit attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and intentions, past behavior, implicit attitude, and behavioral automaticity at an initial point in time, and free sugar limiting behavior and behavioral automaticity two weeks later. A Bayesian structural equation model indicated that explicit attitude, subjective norms, and PBC predicted behavior via intention. Autonomous motivation predicted behavior indirectly through all TPB variables, while controlled motivation predicted behavior only via subjective norms. Implicit attitudes and behavioral automaticity predicted behavior directly and independently. Past behavior predicted behavior directly and indirectly through behavioral automaticity and intentions, but not implicit attitudes. Current findings suggest pervasive effects of constructs representing both reasoned and non-conscious processes and signpost potential targets for behavioral interventions aimed at minimizing free sugar consumption. peerReviewed

Background. Sleep hygiene behaviors in undergraduate students are associated with night-time sleep duration and quality, fatigue, daytime sleepiness, and psychological distress. This study aimed to identify the social psychological factors that impact on university students’ sleep hygiene behaviors in samples from two countries. Methods. Participants were undergraduate students from Australia (N=201) and Hong Kong (N=161). The study used a correlationalprospective design. Individuals self-reported their intention, attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and past behavior with respect to sleep hygiene behaviors. Four weeks later, the students self-reported their action plans and participation in sleep hygiene behaviors. Results. Analysis indicated acceptable model fit to data for both the Australian and Hong Kong samples. Results showed significant direct effects of attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and past behavior on intention, and significant direct effects of action planning and past behavior on prospectively measured sleep hygiene behavior. There were also significant indirect effects of attitude, subjective norms (Hong Kong sample only), and perceived behavioral control on behavior mediated by intention and action planning. Overall, the model predicted a large portion of the variance in sleep hygiene behavior for both the Australian (R2= .524) and Hong Kong (R2= .483) samples. Schenker and Gentleman t-tests found no parameters significantly differed between samples. Conclusions. Current results indicate that university students’ sleep hygiene behaviors are a function of both motivational and volitional processes. This knowledge provides formative data to inform the development of behavior change interventions to improve the sleep hygiene practices of university students.

Objectives University students commonly engage in heavy episodic drinking (HED), which contributes to injury risk, deleterious educational outcomes, and economic costs. Identification of the determinants of this risky behaviour may provide formative evidence on which to base effective interventions to curb HED in this population. Drawing from theories of social cognition and dual-process models, this study tested key hypotheses relating to reasoned and implicit pathways to action for HED in a sample of Australian university students who drink alcohol. Design A two-wave correlational design was adopted. Methods Students (N = 204) completed self-reported constructs from social cognition theories with respect to HED at an initial time point (T1): attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, intentions, habit, past behaviour, and implicit alcohol identity. Four weeks later (T2), students self-reported their HED behaviour and habit. Results An initial path model indicated attitude and subjective norm predicted intentions, and intentions and implicit alcohol identity predicted HED. Inclusion of past behaviour and habit revealed direct effects of these on HED. Effects of T1 habit on HED were indirect through T2 habit, and there were indirect effects of past behaviour on HED through habit at both time points and the social cognition constructs. Direct effects of intentions and implicit alcohol identity, and indirect effects of attitude and subjective norm, on HED, were attenuated by the inclusion of past behaviour and habit. Conclusion Results indicate that university students' HED tends to be governed by non-conscious, automatic processes than conscious, intentional processes. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Social cognitive factors are associated with risky alcohol consumption behaviours. Dual-process models are being used to explain health behaviours, such as heavy episodic drinking (HED). What does this study add? Past HED behaviour and HED habits have direct and indirect effects on students' HED behaviour. Past behaviour and habit attenuate the effects of intentions and implicit alcohol identity on HED.

Causality orientations theory, a key sub-theory of self-determination theory, identifies three distinct causality orientations: autonomy, control, and impersonal orientation. The theory proposes generalized effects of the orientations on motivation and behavior. We meta-analyzed studies (k=83) testing relations between causality orientations, forms of motivation from self-determination theory, and behavior. Pooled data were used to test a process model in which autonomous and controlled forms of motivation mediated relations between causality orientations and behavior. Results revealed that autonomy and control orientations were positively correlated with autonomous and controlled forms of motivation, respectively. Impersonal orientation was correlated negatively with autonomy orientation and autonomous forms of motivation, and positively with control orientation and controlled forms of motivation. Process model tests revealed total effects of autonomy orientation on behavior, comprising direct and indirect effects through autonomous motivation, and a positive direct effect of control orientation on behavior and a negative indirect effect through controlled motivation, resulting in a zero total effect. Analysis of age, gender, behavior type, study design, and study quality revealed few moderator effects on model relations. Findings support effects of autonomy orientation on motivation and behavior, and the processes involved, and identifies constructs that could be targeted, or circumvented, in behavioral interventions.

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-erp-10.1177_0890207020962330 for General causality orientations in self-determination theory: Meta-analysis and test of a process model by Martin S Hagger and Kyra Hamilton in European Journal of Personality

Research conducted to date has identified a knowledge gap associated with understanding the beliefs of parents who have not enrolled their children in formal swimming lessons 1. The current research aims to address this gap, investigating the beliefs of these parents, and using a rigorous mixed methods approach to predict parents’ intentions to enrol their children into formal swimming lessons outside of school. This study was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 (N = 22) was an elicitation study which employed qualitative methods to elicit the salient beliefs that parents of children never enrolled in formal swimming lessons held towards enrolling their children in formal swimming lessons (i.e., a registered swimming lessons program conducted outside of school education) for the first time. Building on the results of Phase 1, Phase 2 (N = 323) employed quantitative methods to examine the key beliefs and social cognition factors impacting upon the intentions of parents of non-enrolled children to enrol their children in formal swim lessons in the next six months. Data from Phase 1 were analysed using content analyses, and data from Phase 2 were analysed using multiple regression and structural equation modelling. Results identified a range of key beliefs that predicted intentions of parents to enrol their child in formal swimming lessons, including the belief that enrolling their child would help to keep their child safe in the water, that the enrolment would be approved of by the child’s other parent and their friends, and that they were not inhibited from enrolling their child due to cost or lack of time. Results further indicated that of the social cognition factors from the theory of planned behaviour—attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control—parents’ intentions to enrol their child were predicted by subjective norms and perceived behavioural control, but not attitudes. Of the additional factors included as part of the integrated model that was tested—role construction, risk perceptions, and autonomous motivation—intentions to enrol were predicted by role construction and risk perceptions. Although autonomous motivation did not have a direct predictive effect on intentions, there was an indirect effect of autonomous motivation on intentions through the theory of planned behaviour variables. This study has important implications for the uptake of formal swimming lessons and, thus, prevention of drowning deaths among young people and adults. Specifically, the study shows that modifiable psychological factors predict parents’ intentions to enrol their child in swimming lessons in the next 6 months.

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-erp-10.1177_0890207020962330 for General causality orientations in self-determination theory: Meta-analysis and test of a process model by Martin S Hagger and Kyra Hamilton in European Journal of Personality

Rationale. Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a genetic condition that predisposes patients to substantially increased risk of early-onset atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. FH risks can be minimized through regular participation in three self-management. Behaviors. physical activity, healthy eating, and taking cholesterol lowering medication. Objective. The present study tested the effectiveness of an integrated social cognition model in predicting intention to participate in the self-management behaviors in FH patients from seven countries. Method. Consecutive patients in FH clinics from Australia, Hong Kong, Brazil, Malaysia, Taiwan, China, and UK (total N = 726) completed measures of social cognitive beliefs about illness from the common sense model of self-regulation, beliefs about behaviors from the theory of planned behavior, and past behavior for the three self-management behaviors. Results. Structural equation models indicated that beliefs about behaviors from the theory of planned behavior, namely, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, were consistent predictors of intention across samples and behaviors. By comparison, effects of beliefs about illness from the common sense model were smaller and trivial in size. Beliefs partially mediated past behavior effects on intention, although indirect effects of past behavior on intention were larger for physical activity relative to taking medication and healthy eating. Model constructs did not fully account for past behavior effects on intentions. Variability in the strength of the beliefs about behaviors was observed across samples and behaviors. Conclusion. Current findings outline the importance of beliefs about behaviors as predictors of FH self-management behaviors. Variability in the relative contribution of the beliefs across samples and behaviors highlights the imperative of identifying sample- and behavior-specific correlates of FH self-management behaviors. peerReviewed

Background and Objectives: Beliefs about the consequences of stress, stress mindset, have are associated with health and performance outcomes under stress. This article reports the development and examination of the psychometric properties of a measure of stress mindset that is consistent with mindset theory and conceptualizes stress mindset as the extent to which an individual endorses the belief that stress can be enhancing: the Stress Control Mindset Measure (SCMM). Design: Correlational cross-sectional survey design in two samples. Methods: Undergraduate students from an Australian university (Sample 1, N=218) and a UK university (Sample 2, N=214) completed the new SCMM and measures of health and well-being outcomes. Results: Confirmatory factor analyses supported a four-factor structure and measurement invariance across samples. Reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and predictive validity of the overall SCMM was supported in both samples. Incremental validity was supported for most outcomes, accounting for significantly more variance in health and wellbeing outcomes than an existing measure. Conclusions: The SCMM is a reliable and valid measure with good psychometric properties and theoretically-consistent relations with health outcomes under stress. Findings provide evidence supporting the potential utility of the SCMM in future research examining relations between stress mindsets and health and performance outcomes.

More than half of unintentional flood-related drowning deaths in Australia are due to driving through floodwater, despite on-going public campaigns. Currently, there is a knowledge gap in understanding why individuals choose to drive through floodwater and the decisions that may lead to such actions. We propose that a more complete understanding of individuals’ decisions to drive through floodwater needs to be considered in the context of the lived experience. Australian drivers (N = 20) who had intentionally driven through floodwater participated in semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using a thematic analysis based in an interpretivist approach. Past experience, individual perceptions (e.g., situation perceived as different to warnings), and the social and environmental context (e.g., pressure and encouragement from others, seeing other motorists driving through) emerged as major themes. Most salient was that although there was a common awareness of the risk posed by driving through flooded waterways, the decision to take this risk emerged as being heavily reliant on one's ability to construct a sense of self-efficacy in the lead-up to the incident. This study is the first to explore the lived experience of drivers who intentionally decided to drive through floodwater. Future research and public campaigns can draw on these findings to develop evidence-based interventions aimed at combating this risky driving behaviour. peerReviewed

Objectives. We tested unique contribution of trait self-control, implicit self-control, and lay beliefs in self-control beliefs to the prediction of health-related behaviours. We also tested whether relations between trait self-control and health-related behaviour, and between implicit self-control and health-related behaviours, were moderated by self-control beliefs.Design. Cross-sectional, correlational.Methods. Students (N = 176) completed self-report measures of trait self-control, lay beliefs that self-control is limited or non-limited, non-planning, participation in health-related behaviours (impulsive eating, impulsive drinking, exercise avoidance, watching diet, alcohol consumption, physical activity participation), and demographic variables. Participants also completed a measure of implicit self-control using an implicit association test.Results. Analyses indicated significant negative relations between of implicit self-control and impulsive drinking and alcohol consumption. We also found a positive relationship between implicit self-control and exercise behaviour, and a negative relationship between implicit self-control and impulsive eating, both of which fell marginally short of statistical significance. Trait self-control significantly predicted all behavioural measures, and attenuated relations between implicit self-control and health-related behaviour. We found no relations between of lay beliefs in self-control and health-related behaviour. Moderated path analyses revealed that lay beliefs in self-control moderated relations between trait self-control and impulsive drinking, implicit self-control and exercise avoidance, and implicit self-control and physical activity participation.Conclusions. Findings suggest that trait self-control was a consistent correlate of health-related behaviour, while the size of relationships between implicit self-control and health-related behaviours was small. Strength of relations between trait self-control and health-related behaviours may depend on whether or not individuals believe self-control is limited.

The purpose of the current research was to assess the effectiveness of several new resources which have been developed by Royal Life Saving Society of New South Wales (RLS-NSW) for addition to the Keep Watch program. These resources include fact sheets for parents and animations and games for young children and are aimed at changing the water safety behaviours of parents of children aged 3 to 5 years old. A convenience sample of parents was recruited from participating childcare centres, social media, and parenting forums. Parents were asked to complete an online questionnaire developed by RLS-NSW and Griffith University, detailing their beliefs, intentions, and behaviours relating to supervising and restricting access to water for their young children. After completing this survey, parents were referred to the resource website and asked to sign up. One month later, parents were contacted via email or phone to complete a set of identical measures, as well as to detail their usage of the new Keep Watch resources and give their opinions on the project. Data indicated no significant change in parent’s supervision or restricting behaviours over the course of the program. Similarly, neither intentions, attitudes, nor normative beliefs changed following the program. However, there was an improvement in control beliefs towards restricting access to water. Interviews with six parents who accessed the website indicated they were already extremely conscious of water safety, and thus a potential reason for the limited findings in this study. The study was hampered by a poor response rate and high level of attrition between survey time points. Further, very few participants stated they used the new Keep Watch resources. Thus, results should be viewed with a high degree of caution due to the possibility of selective responding and responses not being reflective of engagement with the program. As only a few reported they accessed the program and they were already very conscious of water safety, it may be that the volunteer-based recruitment resulted in a highly motivated sample which is not representative of the general population.

Unintentional fatal drowning claims the lives of 279 people per year on average in Australia, with a further 717 people estimated to be hospitalised due to a non-fatal drowning. Young children under five are the age group most at risk of drowning, with 27 children under five, on average, dying from drowning each year. For each fatal drowning among children under five, a further 7.2 children under five are hospitalised due to non-fatal drowning. Building on our previous research, this project provides the first investigation of knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes toward portable pool compliance and safety behaviours of parents of young children aged 0–5 years. The behaviours under investigation were: 1. Supervising young children within arm’s reach; 2. Ensuring adequate fencing is in place to restrict access to portable pools 30cm and deeper; 3.Emptying and storing portable pools safely when not in use. This research has provided insight into the knowledge, beliefs, and safety behaviours of parents of young children who have a portable pool at home. Key findings include that there is a considerable lack of knowledge regarding the requirements for portable pool safety and that parents consider portable pools to pose a significantly lessor drowning risk than permanent in-ground pools. Parents’ recollection of safety information from safety labels was also low. While more than two-thirds of parents always supervised their child within arm’s reach around portable pools in the last month, the study reveals that a substantial proportion do not. The study also reveals a similar proportion of parents (more than two-thirds) empty and store their portable pool safety after use. With regard to fencing portable pools 30cm and deeper, complying with the legal requirement is substantially lower than the other two behaviours, with less than one-third of parents with portable pools 30cm and deeper having a fence, and less than half of portable pool owners overall being aware that fencing is required. Further work is needed to encourage parents who use portable pools to supervise their child within arm’s reach, to ensure fencing is in place to restrict access to pools deeper than 30cm, to empty and store their portable pool safely after use, and to maintain current CPR training when supervising young children in portable pools. It is hoped that by doing so, portable pool use can be made safer, and more young lives can be saved from drowning.

Drowning is the third leading cause of injury-related deaths worldwide and is thought to be a leading cause of death during times of flood. Activities such as driving into, walking near, or engaging in recreational activities near or in floodwater are commonly reported as preceding drowning. Reports have shown that, in Australia, around 53% of flood-related drowning deaths and 55% of all river flood-related unintentional drowning deaths were the result of driving through floodwaters. This study was conducted in two phases: an intervention development phase, and an intervention evaluation phase. The intervention evaluation phase utilised a randomised controlled trial design in which participants were randomised into one of two experimental conditions: (1) education about the risks of driving through floodwater; or, (2) education about the risks of driving through floodwater plus a theory-based behaviour change intervention using planning and implementation imagery exercises. Outcomes were measured at baseline, immediately post-intervention, and at a follow-up one month later. The intervention was delivered, and outcomes were measured, within an online survey. The effect of the intervention on the outcomes was assessed using a series of mixed-model ANCOVAs.

Flood-related unintentional drowning claims the lives of an average of 13 people each year, with over half due to intentionally driving into floodwaters. A body of work produced jointly by Griffith University and Royal Life Saving Society – Australia (RLSSA) has been exploring the motivations for driving into floodwaters and avoiding driving into floodwaters. This work has expanded into the role of swift water rescue technicians in floodwater rescues of motorists who have driven into floodwaters and evaluation of a flood safety video infographic aimed at discouraging people from this risky behaviour. Research conducted to date has identified a knowledge gap associated with learner drivers. Initial investigations indicate that there is no education provided to learner drivers about the risks of driving into floodwaters. Evidence collected through previously published studies by Griffith University and RLSSA suggests a cohort of people had driven through floodwaters when they were younger at the behest of their parents. Assessing awareness and psycho-social factors underpinning flood safety for learner drivers is key to achieving long-term commitment to safe driving behaviours during floods. Building on our previous research, the current project provided the first investigation of the knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes of Australian learner drivers toward driving into floodwater. This study was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 (N = 44) was an elicitation study which employed qualitative methods to elicit the salient beliefs that Australian learner drivers hold in relation to risky driving behaviours during floods. Building on the results of Phase 1, Phase 2 (N = 250) employed quantitative methods to examine the key beliefs and social-cognitive processes impacting upon Australian learner drivers’ decisions toward driving through and avoiding driving through floodwater. Data from Phase 1 were analysed using content analyses, and data from Phase 2 were analysed using structural equation modelling. Results identified a range of key beliefs that predicted willingness to drive through floodwater. Beliefs regarding the behaviour included the belief that it will get them to their destination, and that it will be fun. The belief that it would put them in danger negatively predicted willingness to drive through floodwater. Normative beliefs that predicted willingness to drive through floodwater included perceived approval of parents, other family members, and authorities such as the police. Facilitators included needing to get to their destination, needing to escape danger, and support from other people. Barriers to driving through floodwater included water conditions not seeming appropriate, not wanting to damage their vehicle, and not being able to see what is beneath the water surface.

Background. Beyond ability, traits related to perseverance, such as grit and self-discipline, are associated with adaptive educational outcomes. Few studies have examined the independent effects of these traits on outcomes and the mechanisms involved.Aims. The present study estimated parameters of a process model in which grit perseverance of effort (grit-effort) and consistency of interest (grit-interest) dimensions and self-discipline were independent predictors of students’ science grades. The effect of the grit-effort on grades was expected to be mediated by students’ self-reported effort on optional out-of-school science learning activities.Sample. Secondary school students (N=110) aged between 12 and 14 years.Methods. The study adopted a correlational design with measures taken on three occasions. Students completed self-report measures of grit and self-discipline early in the semester and effort on optional out-of-school learning activities five weeks later. Students’ science grades were collected at the end of the semester. Data were analysed using Bayesian path analyses using non-informative and informative priors derived from previous research.Results. Consistent with predictions, we found effects of grit-effort on science grades mediated by effort, and self-discipline on grades. Contrary to predictions, we also found an effect of self-discipline on grades mediated by effort. Zero was a credible value for direct effects of grit-effort on grades, and grit-interest on effort and grades.Conclusions. Results suggest grit-effort and self-discipline relate to effort on educational activities linked to better grades. The direct effect of self-discipline on grades suggests that it may be related to other activities that determine science attainment.

Objective: Pre-drinking, the practice of consuming alcohol prior to attending a subsequent event, increases the risk of alcohol-related harm, and is common in undergraduate student populations. The current study tested an integrated behaviour change model to identify the motivational, social-cognitive, and implicit predictors of pre-drinking. Design: University students (N = 289) completed an online questionnaire comprising measures of motivational and social-cognitive constructs related to reducing pre-drinking alcohol consumption and past behaviour, and an implicit association test for drinking identity. Participants reported their pre-drinking alcohol consumption at follow-up, four weeks from baseline. Main Outcome Measures: Self-reported pre-drinking alcohol consumption. Results: A variance-based structural equation model revealed that few model hypotheses were supported. Although the effects of past behaviour, perceived behavioural control, and implicit drinking identity, on follow-up pre-drinking alcohol consumption were statistically significant, the effect of intention was not. Conclusion: Current findings indicate pre-drinking alcohol consumption is associated with past behaviour, perceived behavioural control, and implicit drinking identity, and not intentions to reduce pre-drinking alcohol consumption. Finding raise questions over the validity of applying the integrated model in this context. Interventions should consider these factors and attempt to facilitate the formation of intentions that lead to subsequent behaviour.

Background Emerging evidence indicates that holding particular stress mindsets has favorable implications for peoples’ health and performance under stress. Purpose The aim of the current study was to examine the processes by which implicit and explicit stress mindsets relate to health- and performance-related outcomes. Specifically, we propose a stress beliefs model in which somatic responses to stress and coping behaviors mediate the effect of stress mindsets on outcomes. Methods Undergraduate university students (N = 218, n = 144 females) aged 17– 25 years completed measures of stress mindset, physical and psychological wellbeing, perceived stress, perceived somatic responses to stress, proactive behaviors under stress, and an implicit association test assessing an implicit stress mindset. At the end of the semester, students’ academic performance was collected from university records. Results Path analysis indicated significant indirect effects of stress mindset on psychological wellbeing and perceived stress through proactive coping behaviors and perceived somatic symptoms. Stress mindset directly predicted perceived stress and physical wellbeing, and physical wellbeing and academic performance were predicted by stress mindset through perceived somatic symptoms. Implicit stress mindset did not predict proactive behavior as anticipated. Conclusions Current findings indicate that behaviors with the goal of proactively meeting demands under stress and perceived somatic symptoms are important mediators of the effect of stress mindset on health- and performance-related outcomes. The findings from this study provide formative data that can inform the development of future interventions aiming to encourage more adaptive responses to stress. peerReviewed

Participant booklet. (PDF 705 kb)

Drowning is a global public health issue, with the World Health Organization (WHO) estimating 372,000 drowning deaths annually. Children under five are the age group most at risk of unintentional drowning, both fatal and non-fatal. In Australia, an average of 28 children under five drown each year. A further 199 children under five are hospitalised each year in Australia due to a non-fatal drowning incident. Private swimming pools (also known as home swimming pools) are the leading location for drowning among children under five, accounting for 44.8% of fatal drownings among children 0-4 years in Australia in 2016/17. While the strategies for preventing child drowning are widely agreed (e.g. supervision, restricting a child’s access to water, water awareness and resuscitation), lapses in adult supervision and faulty or propped open gates continue to be common causal factors implicated in cases of fatal child drowning in home pools. In order to increase understanding of the knowledge, behaviours and attitudes of parents and carers of children under five with access to a home pool; Royal Life Saving Society – Australia (RLSSA) and Griffith University conducted a representative survey of those residing in NSW, with a particular focus on the two pool-related behaviours of supervision and restricting access to water through the use of pool fencing.

SPIRIT 2013 Checklist. (DOC 138 kb)

Given the shortfall in students studying science, promotion of motivation and engagement in science education is a priority. The current study applied the trans-contextual model to study the motivational predictors of participation in science learning activities in secondary-school students. In a three-wave prospective design, secondary-school students completed measures of perceived autonomy support, autonomous and controlled motivation, social-cognitive beliefs (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control), intentions, and self-reported participation in out-of-school science learning activities. Five-weeks later, students self-reported their science learning activities. Students’ averaged science grades over the semester period were obtained. Bayesian path analyses supported model hypotheses: in-school autonomous motivation predicted out-of-school autonomous motivation, beliefs, intentions, science activity participation, and science grades. Specifying informative priors in the Bayesian analysis yielded greater precision in estimates. Findings provide initial evidence of a link between students’ autonomous motivation toward science activities across contexts and may inform interventions promoting motivation and participation in science activities.

Purpose Fruit and vegetable intake (FV) is insufficient in industrialized nations and there is excess of discretionary food choices (DC; foods high in fat, sugar, and salt). Long-haul truck drivers are considered a particularly at-risk group given the limited food choices and normatively reinforced eating habits at truck rest-stops. Self-efficacy and normative support are key determinants of eating behavior yet the processes underlying their effects on behavior are not well understood. We tested the direct and interactive effects of self-efficacy and normative support on healthy eating behaviors in long-haul truck drivers in a prospective correlational study. Method Long-haul truck drivers (N = 82) completed an initial survey containing self-report measures of behavioral intentions, perceived normative support, and self-efficacy for their FV and DC behaviors. Participants completed a follow-up survey 1 week later in which they self-reported their FV and DC behavior. Results A mediated moderation analysis identified an interactive effect of self-efficacy and normative support on behavior mediated by intention for FV and DC behavior. Specifically, we confirmed a compensation effect in which self-efficacy was more likely to have an effect on FV and DC behavior through intentions in participants with low normative support. Conclusion Results indicate the importance of self-efficacy in predicting FV and DC intentions and behavior in the absence of a supportive normative environment. The compensatory effect of self-efficacy beliefs on behavior through intentions when normative support is low should be confirmed using experimental methods. peerReviewed

More than half of unintentional flood-related drowning deaths in Australia are due to driving through floodwater. Currently, there is a critical knowledge gap in understanding why individuals choose to drive through floodwater and the decisions that may lead to such actions. This study is the first to explore drivers’ descriptions of the influences on their decision to drive through a road covered in water. Through inductive analyses of interviews in which drivers provided rich in-depth descriptions of their lived experience, the current study was able to isolate a range of commonly occurring themes which will be instrumental in planning future research and interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence of this risky behaviour.

Self-determination theory is a generalized theory of behavior that focuses on motivation quality and psychological need satisfaction as preeminent behavioral determinants. The theory distinguishes between autonomous and controlled forms of motivation. Autonomous motivation reflects willingly engaging in behaviors for self-endorsed reasons, whereas controlled motivation reflects engaging in behavior for externally or internally pressured or controlled reasons. Satisfaction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness is necessary for optimal functioning and well-being, and influences the form of motivation, autonomous or controlled, experienced by individuals when acting. Autonomous motivation is consistently related to sustained behavior change and adaptive outcomes. Interventions to promote autonomous motivation have targeted psychological need support provided by social agents (e.g., leaders, managers, teachers, health professionals), particularly autonomy need support. Interventions using need-supportive techniques have demonstrated efficacy in promoting autonomous motivation, behavior change, and adaptive outcomes. Research has identified behaviors displayed, and language used, by social agents, or communicated by other means, that support autonomous motivation. Autonomy-support training programs have been developed to train social agents to promote autonomous motivation and behavior change. Future research needs to examine the unique and interactive effects of specific autonomy-support techniques, provide further evidence for long-term efficacy, and examine “dose” effects and long-term efficacy.