Search

Over the past decade, the illicit drug market has been reshaped by the proliferation of clandestinely produced designer drugs. These agents, referred to as new psychoactive substances (NPSs), are designed to mimic the physiological actions of better-known drugs of abuse while skirting drug control laws. The public health burden of NPS abuse obliges toxicological, police and customs laboratories to screen for them in law enforcement seizures and biological samples. However, the identification of emerging NPSs is challenging due to the chemical diversity of these substances and the fleeting nature of their appearance on the illicit market. Here we present DarkNPS, a deep learning-enabled approach to automatically elucidate the structures of unidentified designer drugs using only mass spectrometric data. Our method employs a deep generative model to learn a statistical probability distribution over unobserved structures, which we term the structural prior. We show that the structural prior allows DarkNPS to elucidate the exact chemical structure of an unidentified NPS with an accuracy of 51% and a top-10 accuracy of 86%. Our generative approach has the potential to enable de novo structure elucidation for other types of small molecules that are routinely analysed by mass spectrometry. Identifying a chemical substance using mass spectrometry without knowing its structure is challenging. To help detect novel designer drugs from their mass spectra, Skinnider et al. describe a generative model that is biased towards creating potentially psychoactive molecules and thus helps identify potential candidates for a specific sample.

In 2018, the government of Canada legalized cannabis for non-medical use. In addition to safeguarding public health, the main objective was to divert profits from the illicit market and restricting its availability to youth. This dramatic shift in policy direction introduces new challenges for the criminal justice system due to the persistence of unlawful distribution among persons who refuse to abide by the new law. Continuing unlawful distribution is foreseeable, in part, because of stringent measures to reduce availability by targeting participants in the illegal market. Recognizing that the most heavy, frequent, users account for the majority of cannabis consumed—and are the group most likely to keep purchasing from dealers because of lower costs and easy access—the illegal market will continue to provide a substantial (albeit unknown) proportion of the total volume. The recent change in policy in Canada provides new opportunities for research to assess how legalization of cannabis affects its use and distribution patterns. The National Cannabis Survey (NCS), administered at three-month intervals, allows for multi-wave comparison of prevalence statistics and point of purchase information before and after legalization. Drawing on the NCS, this article examines the extent to which the primary supply source has changed across the provinces, controlling for other factors and consumer characteristics. Findings are interpreted with reference to studies of cannabis law reform in North America informing research and policy observers in these and other jurisdictions, undergoing or considering, similar reforms.

In the criminal underworld, transactions generate risk for the parties involved, but in contrast to legal markets, parties are unable to turn to legal recourse when cheated in a transaction. Past r...

Knowledge of drug composition consumed on the streets and the identification and quantification of their adulterants is essential for understanding unexpected side effects, tracking routes, and drug profiling. Therefore, this work aimed to determine the purity and to identify and quantify the main adulterants found in personal doses of cocaine (perico) and coca paste (bazuco) in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia). The data collected in this study describe a first attempt to introduce the qualitative and quantitative analyses of adulterants present in street drugs in Cartagena de Indias to improve surveillance. Through gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), the purity and adulterants were quantified in 45 personal doses of cocaine powder and coca paste. 100% of the personal doses in the city were adulterated; caffeine, phenacetin, and levamisole were the main adulterants identified in cocaine. Besides the above, lidocaine was also found in coca paste. The purity of cocaine varied from 8% to almost 70%, with caffeine ranging from 6% to 42%. In the case of coca paste, the maximum content of cocaine found was 60%, while some samples contained as little as 14%. The results are consistent with other research in terms of the widespread use of caffeine as an adulterant, but they also follow the growing trend of the use of levamisole and phenacetin. The wide range of cocaine content in samples sold in the illicit market could cause undesirable effects on cocaine users who do not know the exact intended dose for consumption; so, this study intends to make these results available not only to academic, public health, and national security agencies but also to tourists entering Cartagena de Indias, so that they are aware of what they are consuming and the risks to which they are exposed.

Over the last two decades, researchers explored various aspects of the operational practices of online illicit market operations through the Open and Dark Web for various physical and digital goods...

We apply a simple three good general equilibrium model to examine the optimality of a Pigouvian tax on a legal cannabis market which faces competition from a well-established illicit market. Despit...

The U.S. opioid epidemic has caused substantial harm for over 20 years. Policy interventions have had limited impact and sometimes backfired. Experts recommend a systems modeling approach to addres...

This paper investigates tobacco smuggling in the Western Balkans, a region notorious as the main smuggling route for Western European countries. Data from a large-scale nationally representative survey from seven Western Balkan countries are used to explore smoking habits, attitudes about the illicit market, and characteristics of smokers associated with illicit market demand. Our results show that, while there are substantial differences between countries in the prevalence of illicit market purchases, the attitudes of people across countries are not dissimilar. The logit model is estimated to analyse the characteristics of illicit market buyers. The results show that purchasing on the illicit market can best be predicted by variables approximating people’s social status. People with lower income and higher levels of addiction are more likely to buy illegal tobacco.

On July 10, 2019, Wisconsin Department of Health Services (WDHS) was notified of five previously healthy adolescents with severe lung injuries who reported use of e-cigarette, or vaping, products before symptom onset. As of December 31, 2019, 105 confirmed or probable cases of e-cigarette, or vaping, product use-associated lung injury (EVALI)* had been reported to WDHS . Three social clusters (A, B, and C), comprising eight EVALI patients (cluster A = two patients, cluster B = three, and cluster C = three) were identified. WDHS investigated these clusters with standard and follow-up interviews; laboratory analysis of e-cigarette, or vaping, products; and analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. All eight patients reported daily use of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-containing e-cigarette, or vaping, product cartridges (THC cartridges) in the month preceding symptom onset. All THC cartridges were purchased from local illicit dealers, and all patients reported using THC cartridges labeled as "Dank Vapes," among other illicit brand names. At least two members of each cluster reported frequent sharing of THC cartridges before symptom onset. All eight patients also reported daily use of nicotine-containing e-cigarette, or vaping, products. Vitamin E acetate (VEA) was detected in all five THC cartridges tested from two patients, and in BAL fluid from two other patients. These findings suggest that THC cartridges containing VEA and sold on the illicit market were likely responsible for these small clusters of EVALI. Based on information presented in this and previous reports (1,2) CDC recommends not using THC-containing e-cigarette, or vaping, products, especially those obtained from informal sources such as friends, family, or in-person or online dealers (1). VEA is strongly linked to the EVALI outbreak and should not be added to e-cigarette, or vaping, products (1).

Drug abuse is a global predicament. The illicit market of drugs consistently witnesses experiments to deceive law regulatory agencies during manufacturing and trading of these regulated drugs. Drug traders amalgamate core drug compound with other chemical moieties to deceive regulatory agencies, to enhance potency and to escalate the tempt for consumption. Diacetylmorphine, commonly called smack/heroin is substantially seized round the globe, which clearly indicates its large scale abuse. This study presents some unusual additives in 252 seized samples for suspected heroin, referred to Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL), Delhi in the year 2019. The samples were isolated, screened and identified using GC-MS technique. Besides other consistent additives, four unusual novel adulterants were detected in confiscated heroin samples in Delhi, India. The study will update forensic chemical experts in detection of new adulterants in seized drugs, besides disseminating awareness and knowledge among those concerned with drug regulation, monitoring and policy making.

During August 9-October 31, 2019, 96 patients were classified as having e-cigarette, or vaping, product use-associated lung injury (EVALI) by the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH); other patients are being investigated for case classification and exposures. Among 58 patients interviewed, 53 (91%) reported obtaining tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-containing products from informal sources such as friends, family members, or in-person or online dealers. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS), the MDH Public Health Laboratory (PHL) analyzed 46 THC-containing e-cigarette, or vaping, products obtained from 12 EVALI patients for various potential toxicants, including vitamin E acetate, which has recently been detected in some THC-containing products and in samples of lung fluid from EVALI patients (1-4). To explore whether vitamin E acetate is a recently added component in THC-containing products, MDH tested ten products seized by law enforcement in 2018, before the EVALI outbreak, and 20 products seized in 2019, during the outbreak. Twenty-four products obtained from 11 EVALI patients from 2019 contained vitamin E acetate. Among the seized products tested by MDH, none seized in 2018 contained vitamin E acetate, although all tested THC-containing products seized in 2019 tested positive for vitamin E acetate. These chemical analyses of products obtained from EVALI patients and of products intended for the illicit market both before and during the outbreak support a potential role for vitamin E acetate in the EVALI outbreak; however, the number of products tested was small, and further research is needed to establish a causal link between exposure to inhaled vitamin E acetate and EVALI. Collaboration between public health jurisdictions and law enforcement to characterize THC-containing products circulating before the recognition of the EVALI outbreak and during the outbreak might provide valuable information about a dynamic market. These Minnesota findings highlight concerns about e-cigarette, or vaping, products that contain THC acquired from informal sources. Because local supply chains and policy environments vary, CDC continues to recommend not using e-cigarette, or vaping, products that contain THC or any e-cigarette, or vaping, products obtained from informal sources. E-cigarette, or vaping, products should never be used by youths, young adults, or pregnant women.* Until the relationship between inhaled vitamin E acetate and lung health is better characterized, vitamin E acetate should not be added to e-cigarette, or vaping, products.

Background: In October 2018, Canada legalized non-medical cannabis. A primary goal of legalization is to reduce illicit market transactions; however, there is little ‘baseline’ data on the price and purchase sources of cannabis prior to legalization in Canada. This study examined the self-reported price of dried cannabis, quantity purchased, and sources used before retail stores opened. Methods: Data come from the baseline wave of the International Cannabis Policy Study (ICPS), a prospective cohort survey conducted in August–October 2018, immediately before legalization. Respondents were 1227 Canadians aged 16–65 years who reported purchasing dried cannabis in the past 12 months. Respondents were recruited using the Nielsen Consumer Insights Global Panel. A linear regression model examined price-per-gram by quantity purchased, source used, and socio-demographics. Results: Overall, the mean self-reported price-per-gram among cannabis users was C$9.56 (standard errors of the mean [SEM] = 0.2). The price-per-gram of cannabis significantly decreased as quantity purchased increased. For example, the mean price of cannabis purchased in smaller quantities (28 g) ($5.60/g, SEM = 0.2). The estimated quantity discount elasticity was −0.21 (95% CI: −0.25, −0.18). The most common purchase sources used were family member/friends (53.0%) and illicit street dealers (51.7%). Price-per-gram varied across sources; however, variation was largely accounted for by consumers purchasing different quantities at different sources. Conclusions: Variations in the price of dried cannabis were largely determined by the quantity purchased. The findings highlight the importance of accounting for purchase quantity when assessing cannabis prices, particularly in illicit markets.

Forensic nbsp analyzes nbsp that nbsp allow nbsp the nbsp differentiation nbsp of nbsp crack nbsp and nbsp cocaine nbsp combined nbsp with nbsp the nbsp verification of crack adulterants allow inferences about the implication of this drug in human health since several studies show that there is a growing number of crack users which when compared to crack cocaine Make use of this drug are exposed to products occurring due to the procurement processes as well as the adulterants placed in the samples The addition of different substances adulterants and diluents in crack freebase is a well known phenomenon in the illicit market Adulterants may interact with cocaine and determine new toxic syndromes by inferring the clinical state of poisoning especially in cases where the routes of administration are changed In Brazil the analysis of adulterants contaminants and or diluents added to crack is not routine in official laboratories Cocaine is the second most commonly used illicit drug after marijuana in the United States According to national sense more than million Americans years of age and older have used cocaine at least once in their lifetime There are no drugs approved for pharmacotherapeutic substitution drugs taken chronically as a substitute for drug abuse such as methadone for heroin addiction In this context a bibliographic survey was carried out in original articles review articles and analysis analyzes obtained from the PubMed database As inclusion criteria the association between the terms ldquo cocaine rdquo and ldquo crack rdquo was used Found works related to the theme being selected scientific papers for the development of the present work among them original articles review articles journal articles and book chapters because they have greater relevance to the main objective i e pharmacological approach mechanism of action biosynthesis adverse effects tolerance among others to compose the context of this study

Aims To perform a wastewater-based analysis to explore the impact of newly legalized retail cannabis sales on its use and to determine if this approach could estimate the size of the legal market place, which began 1 August 2014 in the study area. Design Laboratory study of raw wastewater samples collected and analyzed over the 3-year period from 2014 to 2016. Setting and participants Samples obtained from the two wastewater treatment plants that serviced a municipality of 200 000 people in the state of Washington, USA. Measurements Quantitative analysis of 24-hour composite influent samples for the metabolite of the active ingredient in cannabis, 11-nor-9-Carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) were performed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Findings Wastewater estimates for THC-COOH increased by 9% per quarter, suggesting a doubling in cannabis consumption from 1 December 2013 to 31 December 2016. State-sold THC increased at nearly 70% per quarter, while stores operated from 1 August 2014 to 31 December 2016. Estimating the proportion of the total cannabis market supplied by state-regulated cannabis from these data is not currently achievable. Conclusion A wastewater-based measure of cannabis consumption suggests a significant increase in consumption in Washington, USA following legalization, and that legal sales appear to have displaced a large portion of the illicit market.

This article asks whether economic liberalization, under certain institutional conditions, is indirectly related to drug violence. Focusing on Mexico’s drug trade, where violence was historically limited by politicoinstitutional arrangements, this study examines how trade liberalization shapes social exclusion in key trafficking regions and, in turn, shapes the industry. It argues that the change in development strategy has increased the flow of workers into the drug trade by reconfiguring the agricultural sector in regions where drugs are produced while failing to absorb surplus labor in manufacturing centers containing key smuggling routes. Through both mechanisms, workers enter an illicit market with new institutional settings that allow for fierce competition and the use of violence. Using panel data on drug violence from 2007 to 2011, the study finds that exposure to trade is associated with violence in both drug-producing and -smuggling regions, but with a more sizable effect in the former.

Introduction. Currently, one of the promising directions for improving the state regulation of the excisable goods market is to increase the eff ectiveness of carrying out factual inspections of excise goods market participants, including through the use of remote control instruments; improvement of special reporting on the production and sale of excisable goods as an integral part of the formation of a single information array of data for the implementation of procedures for monitoring the movement of excisable goods from the manufacturer to the fi nal consumer. The purpose is a developing of the best practice automated market surveillance of excisable goods in EU countries. Results. In this article is study out that for the administration of excise duty taxes in the EU countries in the mode of deferred payment there is functioning of the institute of excise warehouses and Excise Movement and Control System. It has been determined that the movement of excisable products between diff erent EU countries involves the registration of digital documents in the electronic systems of the sending country and destination country. The main components of the EMCS, the legal and regulatory framework for its functioning, and the geographical structure of the permits issued for the movement of excisable goods are described. Conclusions. The advantages and disadvantages of functioning of EMCS are revealed. The disadvantages include the lack of: methods for assessing the risks of illegal movement of excisable goods; regular reporting on traffi cking and fraud; A Unifi ed Methodology for Assessing the Illicit Market The benefi ts of EMCS are to reduce the cost of tax audits and facilitate access to information for risk monitoring, better coordination and cooperation between the Member States in cross-border fraud cases.

Why hasn't Chegg, the largest and most successful online contract-cheating platform in the world, been shut down yet? The remainder of this paper contains three parts, plus an Appendix. Part 1 surveys the seller side of the illicit market created by Chegg, while Part 2 explores the buyer side. Part 3 concludes with some observations about a recent case involving a grade-selling scheme. The Appendix then sets forth a model criminal complaint against Chegg.

Drug trafficking is one of the most serious health threats public, worldwide. Thus, both the trend of globalization and the galloping development of technology, which have led to the diversification of trade links and the elimination of border controls, are exploited by criminal organizations in order to feed and control the illicit market of drugs. During the last years, a new type of toxic phenethylamine derivatives, referred to as NBOMe, has been detected on the black market. This study compares a series of artificial neural networks (ANNs) that screen for these new psychoactive drugs based on their geometrical descriptors. The best performing of these machine learning tools has been identified based on a series of figures of merit assessing their efficiency in assessing the class identity of an unknown chemical.

Progress in information technology may respond to the current worldwide growth of the drug abuse. NBOMe is a group of toxic phenethylamines recently identified on the illicit market as a cheaper alternative of LSD. This paper presents a series of artificial neural networks (ANNs) designed to detect NBOMe hallucinogens based on their most important topological descriptors. The topological descriptors were determined for the optimized molecular structures of 160 illicit drugs and other related compounds. Several ANNs have been built with an increasingly smaller number of the most important topological descriptors. The best performing systems have been identified based on classification rates measuring their efficiency.

N-benzylphenethylamines derivatives, such as NBOMe and NBOH series, are potent hallucinogen drugs that are usually sold in the illicit market as blotter papers containing “legal” LSD alternatives. The identification of these drugs is mainly performed by liquid or gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, but there is a lack of a rapid screening methods to identify samples containing or not drugs of these series. For this purpose, this work offers a fast and non-destructive method applying a handheld NIR spectrometer for discrimination of drugs absorbed in blotter papers using PLS-DA and SIMCA. The method was developed in a two-stage approach: Model A for identification of samples containing or not drugs and model B for identification of samples containing NBOMe or NBOH drugs. PLS-DA models have provided efficiency rates higher 97% in both training and validation phases. Robustness of model B was evaluated with a random permutation of samples among training and validation phases, given mean efficiency rates higher than 89%. SIMCA models presented equivalent efficiency for model A, but lower efficiency for model B comparing to PLS-DA results. However, SIMCA showed a higher efficiency to deal with samples containing drugs not included in the training phase. Results support use of this method for in loco forensic analysis and as a screening method prior the chromatographic and mass spectrometry analysis.

Cigarettes are highly taxed in Europe, but at higher prices some consumers substitute more toward illicit cigarettes. The illicit retail trade in cigarettes (IRTC) includes counterfeit, untaxed, and smuggled cigarettes. Some existing literature includes claims that taxes are not an important determinant of IRTC. Using data from the European Union, we find the opposite: raising prices leads to substantial increases in IRTC. A €1 increase in tax/pack is expected to increase illicit market share by 5 to 12 percentage points and increase illicit cigarette sales by 29% to 95%. The results are robust to alternative specifications and data. (JEL I18, H26, K42)

Introduction. Illegal trade in alcoholic beverages / tobacco products deprives the state of tax revenues and increases the availability of such excisable goods around the world, undermining the goals of social policy. In this regard, the most urgent issue is the introduction and implementation of effective control strategies for the circulation of such goods based on the assessment of their illegal circulation. Accordingly, the urgent issue is the development of a methodology for assessing such illegal circulation and its use in the practice of fiscal authorities, it will allow obtaining information on the volume of non-receipt of excise tax and the effectiveness of controls on illegal circulation. Proceeding from the peculiarities of the development of the alcohol and tobacco segments of the excisable goods market in Ukraine, the authors of the article have developed and proposed a Methodology for assessing the illegal circulation of such excisable goods, it involves the use of macro methods, in particular, the method for estimating the implementation and method of estimating tax revenue losses. The source data base of the Methodology was provided by the official statistics of the State Statistics Service of Ukraine, the United Nations Trade Commerce Statistics Database, WHO data and the Second Global Adult Tobacco Survey. The purpose of the article is a development of methodology for statistical estimation of the volumes and share of illicit market for tobacco and alcohol and tax gap from such treatment. Results. The proposed methodology consists of four stages, which provide for the determination of the volume of consumption of alcoholic beverages / tobacco products and their sales in the retail chain; trade gap and adjusting the volume of sales of cigarettes in the retail chain; volumes and shares of illegal circulation; the tax break and its share in total tax revenues. Conclusionof the evaluation of the illegal circulation of alcoholic beverages and tobacco products according to the Methodology is indicate about the significant part of them from the legal market of such excisable goods, which was made up 36% for alcoholic beverages on average for 2012–2016, and for tobacco products in the scenario, adjustment of sales volume for trade the gap was 19,3%, in the scenario without adjustment was 13,1%. In turn, the share of losses of excise tax and VAT receipts from illegal circulation of alcoholic beverages / tobacco products was 4,8% in total tax revenues during the analyzed period in the first scenario and in the second scenario was 4,4%.

In this paper we analyse the evolution of cigarette excise duties policy in the Western Balkans Countries (WBCs) from 2007 to 2017 and estimate respective fiscal and smoking prevalence outcomes. We also identify key expected changes in the future required to align with the EU directives. Driven by fiscal motives, all WBCs have been increasing the cigarette excise duties rates from 2007 to 2017, which is why the average excise yield soared by 4.1 times, from 15.3 to 58.8 Euro/1,000 pieces of cigarettes. This resulted in nominal rise of cigarette excise duties revenues by 2.5 times. Over the same period, smoking incidence in the WBCs declined on average by approx. 7%. These results suggest that increase in cigarette excise duties in the WBCs had some fiscal effects, while the health effects were mild. In most WBC countries, surge in excise yield was not fully reflected into rise in tax revenues, only part of that underperformance being explained by decline in smoking incidence, while a part of underperformance could potentially be attributed to a widening illicit market. In the most WBCs, except in Albania, structure of cigarette excise duties scheme is aligned with the EU directives, while in all WBCs excise yield being considerably below the EU minimum threshold. Therefore, full harmonisation with the EU directives would imply strong rise in cigarette excise tax burden in the WBCs, on average by 76%. The required increase in excise yield (comparing to 2017) would range from 14% in BIH, 49% in Montenegro, 54% in Serbia, 117% in Albania, to 145% in Macedonia. Lessons learned in the past 10 years suggest that gradual harmonisation of excise duties rates with the EU directives in the WBCs must be accompanied by significant improvement of tax enforcement efficiency. Otherwise, tax harmonisation may fail to meet its economic and health objectives and contribute to further widening of the shadow economy.

Research on small businesses facilitating illicit markets and the efforts of nonfederal law enforcement agencies to identify these small business offenders has been scant. This exploratory study examines the illicit market for counterfeit products sold through small businesses in the State of Michigan. We used police incident reports of counterfeit products identified during administrative tobacco inspections of small businesses to provide a unique look at this crime problem and the efforts of law enforcement to curtail it. We analyzed the content of these incident reports to explore characteristics of the incidents, businesses and suspects selling counterfeit products, how the counterfeit products were identified and verified, and the origin of the counterfeits. Implications for law enforcement efforts to address counterfeit criminal enterprises and directions for future research are discussed.

Creation of the effective system of customs inspection and formation of transparent procedures of its realization remain priority for world countries in the context of the qualitative integration into the global economic space and growth of global challenges. Illegal movement of goods and objects in global volumes is a threat for the customs space of all countries of the world, despite the development level. Main global tendencies as to contraband of goods and their movement with customs offenses were explained. Main contraband objects were revealed. It was established, that narcotic means occupy the one of first places among goods of illegal movement. Among narcotic substances cannabis is most required at the illicit market. Illegal trade of fauna and flora objects in the last years resulted to irreversible losses of rare species. Attention is accented on the problem of contrafact goods movement through the customs border. The native legislative practice of contraband regulation and customs offenses was elucidated. The assessment of main types of customs offenses in Ukraine was realized. The ways of counteraction to customs offenses of contraband of goods were determined.

Illicit tobacco trade, as much as trade in other illicit products, is nothing new. Some have argued that it has probably existed since the introduction of tobacco as a valuable and sought-after product from the New World. A lot has been written about the topic and tobacco remains among the most traded products on the illicit market. Ultimately, illicit tobacco trade is the outcome of demand and supply. This is true for the UK as well. Consumers wish to save money, demanding cheaper or not available tobacco products, while illicit suppliers wish to make money and are thus interested in meeting demand to ensure larger sales, increased market shares, and greater profit.

Among dual markets (i.e. those where a licit and an illicit market for the same commodity exist), the tobacco market is one of the most tightly regulated. Tobacco consumption poses health problems that generate great costs to society and the economy.

Trafficking of synthetic hallucinogens remains one of the most serious threats to public health and safety, both globally and nationally. A novel group of toxic phenethylamine derivatives, referred to as NBOMe, recently gained prominence on the illicit market. 25I-NBOMe is a potent synthetic derivative of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenetylamine (2C-I), which is a classical hallucinogen with serotonergic action. In this paper, we are presenting an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) designed to identify NBOMe hallucinogens based on their 3D-MoRSE and topological descriptors. The database contains 160 illicit drugs such as NBOMe hallucinogens, sympathomimetic amines, narcotics and other potent analgesics, as well as their main precursors. The molecular structures of all these compounds have been first optimized and then the 3D-MoRSE descriptors and topological descriptors have been determined by using the Dragon 5.5 software. Several figures of merit have been calculated in order to evaluate the efficiency of the ANN system in identifying the class identity of an unknown sample. A comparative analysis of the results obtained with the 3D-MoRSE descriptors and with the topological descriptors is presented in detail.

The study presents results of toxicological analysis performed on seized material in Neapolitan area in the period from 2013 to 2018. A constancy in THC and heroin percentages is evidenced (%THC ~10% and ~11.5% for marijuana and hashish; heroine: 20–24%), with mean values exceeding the European data. Data on cocaine revealed a constant increment of active principle percentage over the studied period (from 40% in 2013 to ~65% in 2018), with peak of 70% in 2017; also, number of samples exceeding the mean value increased over years. Active principles contents resulted higher than the ones reported in other Italian area ever the same period; marijuana was prevalent on hashish, confirming an Italian trend different from other European countries. A map of the Campania region evidenced two main “storage” districts, one corresponding to the city center and the second located in the northern part. If compared with literature data on the presence of local mafia, these areas are perfectly superimposable to those with the highest risk of homicides, thus confirming the degree of radicalization of local organizations and the relative weight of proceeds from drugs sale. Moreover, such radicalization within the territory seems to be the main reason of the absence of new psychoactive substances among the seized material.

Laws that prohibit, regulate, or tax cigarettes can generate illicit markets for tobacco products. Illicit markets both reduce the efficacy of policies intended to improve public health and create harms of their own. Enforcement can reduce evasion but creates additional harms, including incarceration and violence. There is strong evidence that more enforcement in illicit drug markets can spur violence. The presence of licit substitutes, such as electronic cigarettes, has the potential to greatly reduce the size of illicit markets. We present a model demonstrating why enforcement can increase revenues in the illicit market, show that states with higher tobacco taxes have larger illicit markets, and apply the findings to discussion of public policy toward a potential ban on menthol cigarettes. The social calculus involved in determining public policy toward tobacco cigarettes should include the harms from both consumption and control. We conclude by highlighting areas where more research is needed for effective policymaking.

Cocaine is a stimulant drug of the central nervous system (CNS) extracted from the leaves of Erytroxylum coca. It is defined as a tropane alkaloid containing 1R-(exo,exo)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylic acid methyl esther. However, despite its defined composition, a wide variety of chemical additives are present in cocaine found in the illicit market, such as benzocaine, lidocaine, caffeine, procaine and phenacetin. In this work, 512 cocaine samples seized by the Civil Police of Espirito Santo state (PC-ES, Brazil) were analyzed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) allied to principal component analysis (PCA) in order to classify the samples as a function of seizure year (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012) and location (metropolitan, north, south and central). The cocaine content (wt.%) and its adulterants were also estimated. Analyzing the samples seized between 2008 and 2011, three sample sets are clearly grouped according to the degree of adulteration with caffeine and lidocaine: 100-50 wt.% of cocaine; 50-20 wt.% of cocaine; and 20-80 wt.% of lidocaine and 60-80 wt.% of caffeine, simultaneously. The last group is formed by samples seized between 2008 and 2009, which proves the higher degree of adulteration during this period. In 2012, higher cocaine content was observed for the 191 analyzed samples than in samples from previous years. The PCA data also suggests that the metropolitan region samples had a higher degree of adulteration than the state countryside samples.

In the United States, there is a prescription medication misuse crisis including increases in unintentional drug overdose deaths, medications obtained on the illicit market (i.e., diversion), and in the number of individuals seeking treatment for addiction to prescription medications. Neurologists manage patients suffering from conditions (e.g., pain, seizures, spasticity) where the prescriptions of medications with misuse potential are indicated. It is therefore imperative that neurologists understand which medications are liable to misuse and institute strategies to minimize the harm associated with these medications. The authors review the most common medications prescribed by neurologist with misuse potential, and briefly discuss the behaviors that are suggestive of medication misuse and tools for monitoring patients to minimize medication-related harm from misuse.

There are significant loses in tax revenues from illegal trade of such goods as cigarettes due to the fact they are taxed with a very high excise duty burden and therefore there is a very high level of smuggling and illegal trade in alll European Union member states. Increase in the excise duty followed by the price growth has created a fertile ground for expansion of cigarette smuggling on the eastern boarders of the European Union. The authors have designed a methodology how to estimate the excise duty gap on cigarettes. The objective of this article is to present on overview study of tax gap estimations, calculate the excsie duty gap on cigarettes in Latvia, discuss the best practice how to limit the tax gap and protect the legal market, as well as develop recommendations for improvement of tax administration. The problem of protecting the legal market by stoppage and reduction of cigarettes smuggling is on the agenda of the European Union.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.29.4.20335

As long as certain commodities and services are deemed illegal by the state, illicit markets will exist if there is significant demand for them. Prohibition gives illicit materials a higher price, as risk-takers form cartels and indulge in criminal operations to make as much money as possible. This has been true throughout history in most corners of the world. This chapter will discuss moments in history when the state tried to ban certain goods for the purpose of morality. Most of the time, the result has been the formation of black markets to supply the good.

Communication has facilitated trade and transactions across states, helping to improve economic growth, development, and quality of life. The Internet, however, has taken this to a new level. While much is celebrated for this new era of information and learning, there is a dark side of the Internet that exists. This chapter will provide an overview of the Dark Web’s inner working as well as suggest prescriptions to neutralize, or at least clamp down, on these websites and practices.

ObjectiveDocument the use of ultraviolet watermark in counterfeit joint New York City/New York State cigarette tax stamps to assess the scale at which distributors of illegal cigarettes adapt to measures protecting the integrity of the system of tobacco tax collection.MethodsIn 2016, we collected 2357 empty discarded cigarette packs along a stratified random sample of block groups in New York City (n=114) and analysed 449 joint New York City/New York State tax stamps using long wave ultraviolet irradiation, light microscopy and taggant testers developed by the tax stamp manufacturer, Meyercord Revenue, to determine whether the tax stamps were counterfeit and how they differed from their genuine equivalent.Findings23% (n=102) of the joint NYC/NYS tax stamps examined were counterfeit. Subsequent investigation revealed that almost two-thirds (n=58) of the counterfeit sample bore ultraviolet watermark that closely resembled genuine tax stamps in terms of fluorescence, watermark colour and wording. However, microscopic findings revealed that counterfeit tax stamps mismatched the genuine ultraviolet watermark in regards to font style and word orientation.ConclusionCounterfeiters are using ultraviolet watermarks which makes it difficult to differentiate counterfeit joint New York City/New York State tax stamps from their genuine equivalent when UV irradiation is used as the sole screening tool. Innovations in counterfeiting technology may be the result of fluorescent ink being available for purchase in the mainstream market. Independent monitoring of trends in the illicit market for tobacco products is advised to keep apace of counterfeiting methods.

Recently, thienyl derivatives of cathinones have appeared on the market as new psychoactive substances (NPS). In this study, identification and characterization of 2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-1-(thiophen-2-yl)pentan-1-one (α-PVT), 2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-1-(thiophen-2-yl)butan-1-one (α-PBT), and their bromothienyl analogs disclosed in illicit products are described. In our analysis, some analogous compounds of α-PVT, which had a bromine substitution on the thiophene ring, were identified in the samples containing α-PVT; 1-(4-bromothiophen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one, 1-(5-bromothiophen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one, and 1-(4,5-dibromothiophen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one by comparing the analytical data with synthetic reference standards. We also observed 1-(4-bromothiophen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)butan-1-one and 1-(5-bromothiophen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)butan-1-one from a powder product, in which α-PBT was detected. The brominated α-PVTs were also found when overbrominated 1-(thiophen-2-yl)pentan-1-one reacted with pyrrolidine, and they are suspected to be the by-products of α-PVT synthesis. In Japan, cathinone derivatives with a phenyl group as the aromatic ring have been widely controlled by generic scheduling. To escape from such a regulation, analogs with different aromatic groups such as α-PVT and α-PBT appeared on the illicit market of psychoactive compounds. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing identification of α-PBT, and bromothienyl analogs of both α-PVT and α-PBT in illicit drug products. The synthetic method and analytical data shown in this study will be useful for identification of the thienyl derivatives of cathinone analogs.

The trade in conflict antiquities — excavated and looted artefacts from conflict zones — is increasing due to the rising number of conflicts between states and rebel groups. Rebel groups loot conflict antiquities sell them for profit to fund their movements. Current legal and non-legal regulations fail to deter participants in the conflict antiquities market, namely looters, smugglers, dealers and auction houses. This is because regulations are reactive, localised to single states and unable to be easily applied during a conflict. The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme has been successfully used to regulate a similar illicit market — conflict diamonds. It does through a system of warranties certifying that each parcel of diamonds is free from conflict. To date, legal scholarship has recognised the similarities between conflict diamonds and conflict antiquities but has stopped short of analysing whether a certification scheme could similarly reduce the conflict antiquities market. This paper seeks to extend existing literature by undertaking this often absent analysis. It finds that a certification scheme is likely a workable solution for reducing the conflict antiquities market. Dealers and consumers may find such a database easy to use, incentivising participation. It may be an inexpensive solution for states and may help eliminate a form of rebel income. Finally, a certification scheme may better regulate the conflict antiquities market than alternative solutions.

The illicit market for new psychoactive substances is forever expanding. Benzodiazepines and their derivatives are one of a number of groups of these substances and thus far their number has grown year upon year. For both forensic and clinical purposes it is important to be able to rapidly understand these emerging substances. However as a consequence of the illicit nature of these compounds, there is a deficiency in the pharmacological data available for these ‘new’ benzodiazepines. In order to further understand the pharmacology of ‘new’ benzodiazepines we utilised a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) approach. A set of 69 benzodiazepine-based compounds was analysed to develop a QSAR training set with respect to published binding values to GABAA receptors. The QSAR model returned an R2 value of 0.90. The most influential factors were found to be the positioning of two H-bond acceptors, two aromatic rings and a hydrophobic group. A test set of nine random compounds was then selected for internal validation to determine the predictive ability of the model and gave an R2 value of 0.86 when comparing the binding values with their experimental data. The QSAR model was then used to predict the binding for 22 benzodiazepines that are classed as new psychoactive substances. This model will allow rapid prediction of the binding activity of emerging benzodiazepines in a rapid and economic way, compared with lengthy and expensive in vitro/in vivo analysis. This will enable forensic chemists and toxicologists to better understand both recently developed compounds and prediction of substances likely to emerge in the future.

Given the diversity of illicit markets that exist, it is a challenge to find policy responses that are effective, and to date, no single solution has been entirely successful. Military-style responses are often proposed as a response to the perceived (or actual) failure of other strategies, where options appear limited, and when pressure to take action is great. The article explores the set of calculations—strikingly similar across a range of illicit markets—that prompt the use of militarised strategies, and often also account for their weaknesses as a response.

Previous research examining the illegal wildlife market has primarily centered on actor- or stage-based approaches. Recent research has highlighted the value of examining the unique characteristics that make wildlife products suitable targets. Specifically, these studies have examined the concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable, disposable (CRAVED) nature of wildlife hot products, particularly during the initial taking or poaching stage. However, these characteristics are not necessarily static and can change throughout the course of a product’s progression through the illicit market. Depending on the stage, the specific elements of CRAVED may also fluctuate in relevance and importance. In this paper, we examine the utility of the CRAVED model in examining wildlife products of their progression through illegal markets. We argue that although the model is useful in examining specific aspects of the illegal wildlife market, it may be limited in its ability to account for the unique characteristics and nuances of wildlife products. Due to this we introduce a new framework we refer to as concealable, available, processable, transferrable, useable, removable, enjoyable, desirable (CAPTURED) that adapts and extends the original CRAVED model. We discuss the potential utility of the CAPTURED model in examining illegal wildlife market, as well as implications of the new framework for theory and policy.

Parrots are one of the most threatened bird species in the world, partly due to the illegal parrot trade. Previous research has attempted to explain why some parrot species are more likely to be poached for illicit markets, though these studies suffer from a small sample size or focus on a singular illicit market. Whether these past findings are generalizable to other markets in other countries remains unknown. Using two recent conservation studies that examine illicit pet markets in seven cities within Peru and Bolivia (Gastanaga et al., Bird Conservational International, 1–10, 2010; Herrera and Hennessey, Tundra to Tropics, 232–234, 2008), this study applies the CRAVED model (Clarke, London: Home Office, 1999) to identify which factors are able to explain poaching variation of species. Findings show that the more concealable, available, abundant, and disposable species are poached more often. Enjoyable, removable, and valuable species were not found to be significantly related with poaching. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Cocaine represents a serious problem to society. Smoked cocaine is very addictive and it is frequently associated with violence and health issues. Knowledge of the purity and adulterants present in seized cocaine, as well as variations in drug characteristics are useful to identify drug source and estimate health impact. No data are available regarding smoked cocaine composition in most countries, and the smoked form is increasing in the Brazilian market. The purpose of the present study is to contribute to the current knowledge on the status of crack cocaine seized samples on the illicit market by the police of São Paulo. Thus, 404 samples obtained from street seizures conducted by the police were examined. The specimens were macroscopically characterized by color, form, odor, purity, and adulterant type, as well as smoke composition. Samples were screened for cocaine using modified Scott test and thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) technique. Analyses of purity and adulterants were performed with gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Additionally, smoke composition was analyzed by GC-mass spectrometry (MS), after samples burning. Samples showed different colors and forms, the majority of which is yellow (74.0%) or white (20.0%). Samples free of adulterants represented 76.3% of the total. Mean purity of the analyzed drug was 71.3%. Crack cocaine presented no correlations between macroscopic characteristics and purity. Smoke analysis showed compounds found also in the degradation of diesel and gasoline. Therefore, the drug marketed as crack cocaine in São Paulo has similar characteristics to coca paste. High purity can represent a greater risk of dependency and smoke compounds are possibly worsening drug health impact.

Partly due to the illegal parrot trade, parrots are one of the most threatened bird species in the world. Trade bans and regulatory schemes have already been implemented, but the illegal parrot trade continues in an unsustainable fashion. Criminological research in the field has begun to understand why certain species are more prone to becoming poached, but not much is known about how illicit markets operate. A prior case study of a Bolivian illicit market found that most poached parrots are found within a 100-mile radius of the market (Pires and Clarke British Journal of Criminology, 51, 314–335, 2011). However, it is unclear if all markets operate in the same local way. Using two recent studies that look at illicit pet markets in seven cities within Peru and Bolivia (Gastanaga et al. Bird Conservational International, 1–10, 2010; Herrera and Hennessey Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight Conference: Tundra to Tropics, 232–234, 2008), this study investigates if illicit parrot markets fit a standard model. Findings from this study reveal that markets are heterogeneous. Furthermore, a substantial part of the illegal parrot trade involves trafficking species from one market to another and these species are suspected of emanating from just two city markets. Implications of these findings are discussed.

A national medical cannabis registry has been launched for the UK to build a body of evidence to support NHS prescribing.1 A year after cannabis medicines were made legal in the UK, only a handful of patients have been able to access prescriptions on the NHS, according to campaigners.2 Doctors have been reluctant to prescribe cannabis based products because of a lack of evidence about safety and effectiveness. As a result, patients feel forced to get medical cannabis products through prescriptions given by private clinics or the illicit market. Project Twenty21, set up by the independent scientific body Drug Science, aims to enrol up to 20 000 patients by the end of 2021. Patients …

Transnational illicit markets are deeply embedded within legal trade systems and thus should be affected by shifting market conditions. Applying a stochastic actor-oriented model (SAOM), this study tests whether variation in illicit market opportunity could account for changing relations within the small arms trade (2003–2008). Measures of market accessibility – changes in export activity, reporting transparency and the percent of the labour force that is armed – outperformed measures of weapon availability with the exception of involvement in armed conflict. Significant structural change in outdegree density and transitivity suggest the development of trade factions, and decreasing balance hints that leaders are emerging. With the pending de-escalation of US-led conflict in the Middle East, a flood of second-hand weaponry is about to enter the market. Continued research is required to further uncover how the legitimate trade infrastructure facilitates the illicit flow of goods.