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Fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) cables are now used to monitor microseismicity during hydraulic-fracture stimulations of unconventional gas reservoirs. Unlike geophone arrays, DAS systems are sensitive to uniaxial strain or strain rate along the fiber direction and thus provide a 1C recording, which makes identifying the directionality and polarization of incoming waves difficult. Using synthetic examples, we have shown some fundamental characteristics of microseismic recordings on DAS systems for purposes of hydraulic fracture monitoring in a horizontal well in anisotropic (vertical transverse isotropy [VTI]) shales. We determine that SH arrivals dominate the recorded signals because their polarization is aligned along the horizontal cable at the near offset, although SV will typically dominate for events directly above or below the array. The amplitude of coherent shear-wave (S-wave) arrivals along the cable exhibits a characteristic pattern with bimodal peaks, the width of which relates to the distance of the event from the cable. Furthermore, we find that S-wave splitting recorded on DAS systems can be used to infer the inclination of the incoming waves, overcoming a current limitation of event locations that have constrained events to lie in a horizontal plane. Low-amplitude SV arrivals suggest an event depth similar to that of the DAS cable. Conversely, steep arrivals produce higher amplitude SV-waves, with S-wave splitting increasing with offset along the cable. Finally, we determine how polarity reversals observed in the P and SH phases can be used to provide strong constraints on the source mechanisms.

Icequakes, microseismic earthquakes at glaciers, offer insights into the dynamics of ice sheets. For the first time in the Antarctic, we explore the use of fiber optic cables as Distributed Acoustic Sensors (DAS) as a new approach for monitoring basal icequakes. We present the use of DAS for studying icequakes as a case study for the application of DAS to microseismic datasets in other geological settings. Fiber was deployed on the ice surface at Rutford Ice Stream in two different configurations. We compare the performance of DAS with a conventional geophone network for: microseismic detection and location; resolving source and noise spectra; source mechanism inversion; and measuring anisotropic shear-wave splitting parameters. Both DAS array geometries detect fewer events than the geophone array. However, DAS is superior to geophones for recording the microseism signal, suggesting the applicability of DAS for ambient noise interferometry. We also present the first full-waveform source mechanism inversions using DAS anywhere, successfully showing the horizontal stick-slip nature of the icequakes. In addition, we develop an approach to use a 2D DAS array geometry as an effective multi-component sensor capable of accurately characterising shear-wave splitting due to the anisotropic ice fabric. Although our observations originate from a glacial environment, the methodology and implications of this work are relevant for employing DAS in other microseismic environments.

Hydraulically forced crevassing is thought to reduce the stability of ice shelves and ice sheets, affecting structural integrity and providing pathways for surface meltwater to the bed. It can cause ice shelves to collapse and ice sheets to accelerate into the ocean. However, direct observations of the hydraulically forced crevassing process remain elusive. Here we report a novel method and observations that use icequakes to directly observe crevassing and determine the role of hydrofracture. Crevasse icequake depths from seismic observations are compared to a theoretically derived maximum dry crevasse depth. We observe icequakes below this depth, suggesting hydrofracture. Furthermore, icequake source mechanisms provide insight into the fracture process, with predominantly opening cracks observed, which have opening volumes of hundredths of a cubic meter. Our method and findings provide a framework for studying a critical process that is key for the stability of ice shelves and ice sheets and, therefore, future sea level rise projections.

Summary Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is a recently established technology that has considerable potential for monitoring subsurface microseismic activity. Increasing numbers of wells have fibre optic cable installations and with a DAS interrogator these cables can be converted into high-density high-coverage seismic arrays. However, DAS systems can have higher noise floors than that of geophone arrays which make these dense datasets technically difficult to handle and a challenge to accurately pick P- and S-phase arrivals from. Traditional manual approaches are not viable on such sizeable data volumes, and hence automated solutions must be developed for efficient analysis. Here we test how conventional filtering and picking methods can be combined and applied to a DAS microseismic dataset. These approaches are tested on a single hydraulic fracture stage recorded by Silixa Ltd. iDAS system. 302 events were automatically detected and windowed. We manually pick the events to approximate a velocity model and then locate the events. We then test filtering (median, Wiener, bandpass, F-K) and picking methodologies including standard STA/LTA and a guided STA/LTA. The combined approaches that we have developed have produced equivalent results to manual picking but are significantly faster while analysing much higher density of traces.

Initial field trials to investigate the potential for seismic surveys to estimate the extent of damage caused during slope excavation and to estimate a disturbance factor show that a velocity contrast due weathering/disturbance effects in a cliff face is detectable with an active seismic survey with geophones attached to the face. Modelling results confirm the resolution of the method and the experimental set-up is being deployed to monitor excavated faces at Hinkley Point C construction site.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) represents a key technology, allowing us to continue fossil fuel usage while mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. For CCS to be viable, operators must demonstrate that CO2 can be trapped in subsurface layers for thousands of years. A key issue for storage integrity is the geomechancal response of the reservoir. Operators must therefore be able to demonstrate an understanding of the geomechanical effects of CO2 injection. In this paper we consider several large-scale CCS sites, and compare and contrast their geomechanical responses. We also assess how geomechanical deformation has been imaged at these sites, the modelling techniques used, and how models and observations can be linked.

This collection of papers presents recent advances in the study of deformation mechanisms and rheology and their applications to tectonics. Many of the contributions exploit new petrofabric techniques, particularly electron backscatter diffraction, to help understand the evolution of rock microstructure and mechanical properties.

Whether or not plate tectonic processes operated on a younger, hotter Earth remains ambiguous. Seismic data from new networks in the Hudson Bay region of the Canadian Shield, where the Precambrian geological record spans more than 2 billion years, offer fresh scope to address this problem. Using receiver function analyses we show that the crust of the Rae domain, which exhibits ages of Paleo- to Neoarchean (3.9–2.7 Ga), is likely felsic-to-intermediate in composition (average Vp/Vs < 1.73) and seismically transparent with a sharp Moho. There is little evidence for modern-style plate tectonics, and based on the simplicity and spatial extent of the felsic crust, models favouring vertical tectonic processes such as crustal delamination or plume activity appear better suited to the results. Data from the Hearne domain, which exhibits widespread ~ 2.7 Ga granite-and-greenstone geology, show a more complex crust with higher Vp/Vs ratios, consistent with a greater mafic component. The Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO), proposed to be a Himalayan-scale mountain belt during the Paleoproterozoic, is thought to have formed during the ~ 1.8 Ga collision of the Superior and Churchill plates. Results from the Quebec–Baffin Island segment of the THO appear to map out the first-order shape of the underthrusting Superior plate, with elevated Vp/Vs ratios likely representing the rifted margin of the Superior craton. Consistently thicker crust is observed beneath central and southern Baffin Island (~43 km), coincident with widespread high-grade metamorphic surface geology. These features can be explained by crustal thickening due to stacking of accreted terranes during continent–continent collision, analogous to the present-day Tibetan Plateau, followed by erosion. When reviewed in light of age and compositional constraints from the geological record, our seismic observations point towards secular crustal evolution from non-plate tectonic during the Paleo- to Mesoarchean evolving towards fully-developed modern-style plate tectonics during the Paleoproterozoic.

Improving the accuracy of subsurface imaging is commonly the main incentive for including the effects of anisotropy in seismic processing. However, the anisotropy itself holds valuable information about rock properties and, as such, can be viewed as a seismic attribute. Here we summarize results from an integrated project that explored the potential to use observations of seismic anisotropy to interpret lithological and fluid properties (the SAIL project). Our approach links detailed petrofabric analyses of reservoir rocks, laboratory based measurements of ultrasonic velocities in core samples, and reservoir-scale seismic observations. We present results for the Clair field, a Carboniferous-Devonian reservoir offshore Scotland, west of the Shetland Islands. The reservoir rocks are sandstones that are variable in composition and exhibit anisotropy on three length-scales: the crystal, grain and fracture scale. We have developed a methodology for assessing crystal-preferred-orientation (CPO) using a combination of electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD), X-ray texture goniometry (XRTG) and image analysis. Modal proportions of individual minerals are measured using quantitative X-ray diffraction (QXRD). These measurements are used to calculate the intrinsic anisotropy due to CPO via Voigt-Reuss-Hill averaging of individual crystal elasticities and their orientations. The intrinsic anisotropy of the rock is controlled by the phyllosilicate content and to a lesser degree the orientation of quartz and feldspar; the latter can serve as a palacoflow indicator. Our results show remarkable consistency in CPO throughout the reservoir and allow us to construct a mathematical model of reservoir anisotropy. A comparison of CPO-predicted velocities and those derived from laboratory measurements of ultrasonic signals allows the estimation of additional elastic compliance terms due to grain-boundary interactions. The results show that the CPO estimates are good proxies for the intrinsic anisotropy of the clean sandstones. The more micaceous rocks exhibit enhanced anisotropy due to interactions between the phyllosilicate grains. We then compare the lab-scale predictions with reservoir-scale measurements of seismic anisotropy, based on amplitude variation with offset and azimuth (AVOA) analysis and non-hyperbolic moveout. Our mathematical model provides a foundation for interpreting the reservoir-scale seismic data and improving the geological modelling of complex reservoirs. The observed increases in AVOA signal with depth can only be explained with an increase in fracturing beneath the major unit boundaries, rather than a chan e in intrinsic CPO properties. In general, the style and magnitude of anisotropy in the Clair field appears to be indicative of reservoir quality. (Less)

Fluid injection into the subsurface is performed for a variety of reasons, such as hydraulic fracturing, and waste storage. It is well established that fluid injection can trigger seismic activity of sufficient magnitude to be felt by local populations. The industry wishes to avoid such events. We develop a statistical model to forecast the largest event that might be induced by a given injection operation. The model is continuously updated as microseismic data is processed in real time. We use this model in a prospective sense, updating our forecasts through the injection period. We apply our model to two case studies: a hydraulic fracture stimulation in a tight gas reservoir; and at the In Salah CCS project, Algeria. In both cases, our model is capable of forecasting the largest event prior to its occurrence, providing an early-warning for the operator.

SUMMARY In situ stress monitoring of crustal rocks is desirable as it yields insights into earthquake mechanisms, volcanic eruptions and changes in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Shear wave splitting, induced by stress-controlled cracks in the shallow crust, provides a way to infer this stress. Temporal variations in these observations can be difficult to quantify due to scatter in the data and discontinuous observations. Here we present evidence of temporal variations in shear wave splitting from a continuous time-series with a high occurrence of microseismic events recorded in a borehole. We interpret these observations in terms of stress-controlled cracks and are able to infer changes in stress and, via modelling, suggest the cause of the anisotropy. Possible origins of the temporal variation in per cent anisotropy are tidal or oil-field production processes. Our results suggest that shear wave splitting is a viable probe for inferring changes in crustal stress in cracked rock.

The delineation and characterization of fracturing is important in the successful exploitation of many hydrocarbon reservoirs. Such fracturing often occurs in preferentially aligned sets; if the fractures are of subseismic scale, this may result in seismic anisotropy. Thus, measurements of anisotropy from seismic data may be used to delineate fracture patterns and investigate their properties. Here fracture‐induced anisotropy is investigated in the Valhall field, which lies in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. This field is a chalk reservoir with good porosity but variable permeability, where fractures may significantly impact production, e.g., during waterflooding. To investigate the nature of fracturing in this reservoir, P‐wave amplitude variation with offset and azimuth (AVOA) is analyzed in a 3D ocean‐bottom cable (OBC) data set. In general, 3D ocean‐bottom seismic (OBS) acquisition leads to patchy coverage in offset and azimuth, and this must be addressed when considering such data. To overcome this challenge and others associated with 3D OBS acquisition, a new method for processing and analysis is presented. For example, a surface fitting approach, which involves analyzing azimuthal variations in AVO gradients, is used to estimate the orientation and magnitude of the fracture‐induced anisotropy. This approach is also more widely applicable to offset‐azimuth analysis of other attributes (e.g., traveltimes) and any data set where there has been true 3D data acquisition, land or marine. Using this new methodology, we derive high‐resolution maps of P‐wave anisotropy from the AVOA analysis for the top‐chalk reflection at Valhall. These anisotropy maps show coherent but laterally varying trends. Synthetic AVOA modeling, using effective medium models, indicates that if this anisotropy is from aligned fracturing, the fractures are likely liquid filled with small aspect ratios and the fracture density must be high. Furthermore, we show that the fracture‐normal direction is parallel to the direction of most positive AVO gradient. In other situations the reverse can be true, i.e., the fracture‐normal direction can be parallel to the direction of the most negative AVO gradient. Effective medium modeling or comparisons with anisotropy estimates from other approaches (e.g., azimuthal variations in velocity) must therefore be used to resolve this ambiguity. The inferred fracture orientations and anisotropy magnitudes show a degree of correlation with the positions and alignments of larger scale faults, which are estimated from 3D coherency analysis. Overall, this work demonstrates that significant insight may be gained into the alignment and character of fracturing and the stress field variations throughout a field using this high‐resolution AVOA method.

Amplitude variation with offset and azimuth (AVOA) of a P-wave reflection indicates azimuthal anisotropy in at least one of the layers surrounding the reflector. A likely cause of such anisotropy is a set of aligned vertical cracks or fractures. We present a case study of AVOA analysis of a single reflection in a portion of a 3-D multi-azimuthal seismic marine dataset. We consider two approaches to estimating the orientation of a hypothetical fracture set and attempt to assess the uncertainties in the relevant parameters. This allows us to identify which amplitude variations are significant. Some local trends can be seen, but there does not appear to be any globally-preferred orientation. Unfortunately the results of our analysis cannot be confirmed due to the absence of other data (e. g. from wells).

When synthetic seismograms are computed for complicated velocity models using asymptotic methods based on ray theory, the caustic and/or pseudo-caustic geometrical catastrophes that often occur in the ray manifolds can cause many difficulties, because ray amplitudes can become infinite, inaccurate or vanish in such situations. The longer the propagation path relative to the scale of the velocity inhomogeneities and the more the propagation tends to be oblique rather than normal to velocity variations, the more troublesome the catastrophes become. Although the Maslov integral method (MI) largely cures the problems of the classical geometric ray theory (GRT) at caustics (where nearby rays in geometrical space cross) and in geometric shadow zones, it suffers from serious artefacts at pseudo-caustics (the crossing points of rays drawn in the mixed geometrical and slowness space of the Maslov integral). Some methods have been devised to overcome this limitation, but none is satisfactory when it is necessary to compute automatically large suites of seismograms for complex models without continuous intervention from a skilled seismologist. In this paper, we demonstrate how combining the Maslov integral method with a stage of Kirchhoff integration can greatly reduce MI's pseudocaustic problems while retaining MI's ability to overcome the caustic and shadow problems of GRT. In many cases, the additional computational burden increases by one order of magnitude but is still much less than that required in a finite-difference modelling, and is not great for a common workstation. The Maslov–Kirchhoff (MK) technique is shown to be substationally more accurate than ordinary Maslov integration when pseudo-caustics are present. Furthermore, it is more robust and automated than the phase-partitioning technique in curing the problem of joint caustics and pseudo-caustics. We also show that the MK scheme can be more efficient than other Kirchhoff modelling techniques where the kernel of integration is obtained by GRT.

SUMMARY The Maslov asymptotic method addresses some of the problems with standard ray theory, such as caustics and shadows. However, it has been applied relatively little, perhaps because its accuracy remains untested. In this study we examine Maslov integral (MI) seismograms by comparing them with finite-diVerence (FD) seismograms for several cases of interest, such as (1) velocity gradients generating traveltime triplications and shadows, (2) wave-front bending, kinking and folding in a low-velocity waveguide, and (3) wavefield propagation perturbed by a high-velocity slab. The results show that many features of high- and intermediate-frequency waveforms are reliably predicted by Maslov’s technique, but also that it is far less reliable and even fails for low frequencies. The terms ‘high’ and ‘low’ are model-dependent, but we mean the range over which it is sensible to discuss signals associated with identifiable wave fronts and local (if complicated) eVects that potentially can be unravelled in interpretation. Of the high- and intermediate-frequency wave components, those wavefront anomalies due to wave-front bending, kinking, folding or rapid ray divergence can be accurately given by MI. True diVractions due to secondary wave-front sections are theoretically not included in Maslov theory (as they require true diVracted rays), but in practice they can often be satisfactorily predicted. This occurs roughly within a wavelength of the truncated geometrical wave front, where such diVractions are most important since their amplitudes may still be as large as half that on the geometrical wave front itself. Outside this region MI is inaccurate (although then the diVractions are usually small). Thus waveforms of high and intermediate frequencies are essentially controlled by classical wave-front geometry. Our results also show that the accuracy of MI can be improved by rotating the Maslov integration axis so that the nearest wave-front anomaly is adequately ‘sampled’. This rotation can be performed after ray tracing and it can serve to avoid pseudocaustics by using it in conjunction with the phase-partitioning approach. The eVort needed in phase partitioning has been reduced by using an interactive graphics technique. It is diYcult to formulate a general rule prescribing the limitations of MI accuracy because of model dependency. However, our experiences indicate that two space- and two timescales need to be considered. These are the pulse width in space, the length scale over which the instantaneous wave-front curvature changes, and the timescales of pulse width and significant features in the ray traveltime curve. It seems, from our examples, that when these scales are comparable, the Maslov method gives very acceptable results.

In order to test the hypothesis that seismic anisotropy in the lowermost mantle is caused by the development of a post-perovskite lattice preferred orientation, and that anisotropy can thus be used as a probe of the dynamics of the mantle's lower boundary layer, an integrated model of texture generation in D$^{\prime\prime}$ is developed. This is used to predict the elastic anisotropy of the lowermost mantle as probed by global anisotropic tomographic inversions. The model combines the current 3D mantle flow field with simulations of the deformation of post-perovskite polycrystalline aggregates. Different descriptions of single crystal plasticity can lead to model results which are anti-correlated to each other. In models where post-perovskite deformation is accommodated by dislocations moving on (010) or (100), patterns of anisotropy are approximately correlated with the results of tomographic inversions. On the other hand, in models where dislocations move on (001) patterns of anisotropy are nearly anti-correlated with tomographic inversions. If all the seismic anisotropy extracted from global anisotropic inversions is due to the presence of a lattice preferred orientation in post-perovskite in the lowermost mantle, and if the results of the tomographic inversions are not strongly biased by the sampling geometries, these results suggest that, in contrast to ideas based on the 1D anisotropic signal, deformation of post-perovskite in the lowermost mantle may be accommodated by dislocations moving on (010) or (100). Alternatively, a significant portion of the anisotropic signal may be caused by mechanisms other than the alignment of post-perovskite crystals.

SUMMARY Maslov ray summation is ‘less local’ than ordinary ray theory, because the receiver waveform depends on non-Fermat or neighbouring rays and more information about the wavefront than just local Gaussian curvature. In this way, the Maslov solution is able to remain valid at caustics, where geometrical rays and corresponding stationary points of the Maslov phase coalesce. the wavefront information is expressed via the Legendre transformation, whereby the physical wavefront is represented as the envelope of a family of tangent ‘planes’ (Snell fronts). the actual form of the Snell fronts (true planes, sections of curves or surfaces, etc.) depends on the spatial coordinates used. Given a selection for the Snell fronts and Maslov phase, one can substitute the Maslov integral solution directly into the wave equation and obtain a transport equation for the Maslov amplitude. This direct substitution is analogous to that used in ordinary ray theory and avoids pseudo-differential operators. Sometimes the relative curvature of the physical wavefront and a tangential Snell front is zero. the envelope-forming process breaks down, because the local correspondence between the physical front and the Snell fronts is not one to one and invertible. This situation corresponds to a so-called ‘pseudo-caustic’ (slowness-domain caustic or telescopic point) in the Maslov solution. Pseudo-caustics are not real. A particular ray from the source may touch a pseudo-caustic at some time in one coordinate system, but in another system this ray will not have a pseudo-caustic (at the same time and place). It is easy to design a change of coordinates (e.g. from cartesian to curvilinear or polar) to deform a single-valued traveltime function appropriately, but a multi-valued or folded wavefront, as at a physical or real caustic, is less simple. Catastrophe theory is concerned with putting multi-valued functions into ‘normal forms’ which do not have psuedo-caustics. the manifold here is ‘Lagrangian’ and V. I. Arnold showed that a special type of deformation or ‘canonical transformation’ must be used. A ‘Lagrangian equivalence’ consists of a deformation of the ‘base’ (x-space) and/or the addition of a function on the base. the latter simply means factoring out an appropriate reference phase before Legendre transformation and we have found that this simple step is often sufficient for removing pseudo-caustics. It requires no new numerical work, only an inspection or understanding of the ray-tracing results at hand. We present some body-wave computations using the reference-phase technique for models with real caustics in 2-D and for a single-valued wavefront in 3-D. We point out that a Lagrangian equivalence may be used to turn a maximum of the Maslov phase function into a minimum. This has no effect on the frequency-domain solution, but may affect the causality of the computed waveform when the Chapman method is used to obtain the time-domain response. Causality is a property which one may need to impose explicitly. Only the non-delta or one-sided function part of the response (waveform tail) is affected by this consideration. Although zeroth-order Maslov theory correctly describes the severe waveform is clear from Secdistortion due to wavefront catastrophes, it may not adequately model the more subtle effects of smooth wavefront bending. Zeroth-order Maslov theory contains some but not all of the first-order (ω−1) terms of ordinary asymptotic ray theory. First-order Maslov theory is needed for complete consistency up to ω−1. Experimentation will several different zeroth-order Maslov representations is a simple, rapid way to ascertain the potential importance of thse more subtle waveform effects. If the waveform tails are too strong, the assumption that the Maslov (and ray theory) amplitude function can be expanded in powers of ω− may break down. Numerical integration of a wave equation is then necessary.

Summary Traveltimes and amplitudes for P-waves from a 500 km-deep source in the Kuril subduction zone have been synthesized by ray tracing in smooth 3-D models that allow general anisotropy and inhomogeneity. the aim is to compare the effects of proposed anisotropy in or near slabs with those of lateral heterogeneity alone. to concentrate on these effects, the source position, slab thickness (90 km), dip (63°) and velocity anomaly (5 per cent) are held constant. Results are presented for isotropic models with slab penetration to 670km and 1000 km. Anisotropic models with 670 km-deep slabs have anisotropy within the slab (Anderson 1987) and in a 10° wedge above the slab (Ribe 1989a; McKenzie 1979). the resulting wavefront topology is never as simple as that in a laterally homogeneous reference Earth and there is strong model dependence of shadow zones, caustics and areas of multipathing. Rays are traced through slab models defined by 3-D cubic-spline interpolation of up to 21 elastic constants. Outside the slab region, 1-D ray tracing through PREM and spherical trigonometry are used to complete the ray path. the results illustrate the importance of using both traveltime and amplitude information when interpreting slab structure from teleseismic data. Some anisotropic slab models have been found which produce large (>2 s) traveltime residuals that are similar in many parts of the world to those for the deep isotropic model, but the amplitude patterns are substantially different. the model with a deep isotropic slab produces a narrow band of large traveltime residuals (3 s) and high amplitudes in a region across northern Canada. This feature is due to the focusing of rays that have travelled down the high-velocity core of the deep slab. Regions where ray theory fails (i.e. caustics) are obvious through multipathing and amplitude singularities. Hilbert-transforms and Airy-type decay caustics should be observed in many places if the models presented are good representations of the Earth. Multipathing in along-strike regions is a pervasive feature of the models considered and the degree of such multipathing is highly dependent on the nature of the slab-boundary velocity gradients. the model with anisotropy above the slab produces multipathing (traveltime triplication) in the down-dip region (i.e. a narrow region through Europe). Identifying such non-linear or ‘catastrophic’ features in teleseismic data is potentially more diagnostic than linearized interpretations (automated inversion). Overall, the results show that a range of conservative models representing a range of structural theories can encompass a wide range of wavefront consequences. Drs M. Weber and V. Cervený are thanked for helpful reviews of the manuscript. Advice and reprints from Dr K. Fujita are appreciated and Dr D. L. Anderson is thanked for suggesting the anisotropic slab model with no isotropic velocity anomaly. the authors acknowledge the support of NSERC (Canada) through Operating Grant number A1465. J-M.K. is supported by an Amoco Postgraduate Scholarship and an Ontario Graduate Scholarship.

Issue is taken with the ascription of the 2% discrepancy in values of solar irradiance at the surface of the earth, found between the measurements performed by the absolute radiometers of Kendall and Wilson and those obtained by Eppley-Angstrom pyrheliometers, to the possibility that the two types of instruments might collect different amounts of circumsolar radiation. It is shown that this explanation is very unlikely.

The IEA GHG Weyburn-Midale CO2 is currently the largest operational geologic carbon storage project, injecting 3 million tonnes of CO2 every year into a mature oilfield in central Canada since 2000. In 2003 a passive seismic monitoring component was added to the project with the installation of a downhole array near to a new injection well. In this paper we present the results from 5 years of passive seismic monitoring at Weyburn, focusing in particular on how microseismic observations can be linked with geomechanical models of the reservoir. Few events have been recorded during injection - about 100 over 5 years. This suggests that the CO2 is moving through the reservoir aseismically, and geomechanical deformation is low. The few events recorded have been located using a 1-D model developed from well logs. We find that they are generally located near to the horizontal production wells that lie either side of the injector. Depths are poorly constrained, but many appear to be located in the overburden. Shear wave splitting measurements made on the event waveforms find a dominant fracture strike to the NW, matching one of the fractures identified in core samples. Microseismic events are an observable manifestation of geomechanical deformation, so to interpret them create a simple geomechanical model to represent the model. When the reservoir is modelled as softer than the surrounding rocks, stress is transferred into the overburden and deviatoric stresses develop over the producing wells, placing these areas at greatest risk of shear-induced failure. Furthermore, the shear-wave splitting predicted by the model matches the measurements made on microseismic data. This demonstrates how passive seismic observations can be used to groundtruth geomechanical models, improving our understanding of deformation processes occurring during injection.

SUMMARY Lighthill and others have expressed the ray-theory limit of Green’s function for a point source in a homogeneous anisotropic medium in terms of the slowness-surface Gaussian curvature. Using this form we are able to match with ray theory for inhomogeneous media so that the final solution does not depend on arbitrarily chosen ‘ray coordinates’ or ‘ray parameters’ (e.g. take-off angles at the source). The reciprocity property is clearly displayed by this ‘ray-coordinate-free’ solution. The matching can be performed straightforwardly using global Cartesian coordinates. However, the ‘ray-centred’ coordinate system (not to be confused with ‘ray coordinates’) is useful in analysing diffraction problems because it involves 2 X 2 matrices not 3 x 3 matrices. We explore ray-centred coordinates in anisotropic media and show how the usual six characteristic equations for three dimensions can be reduced to four, which in turn can be derived from a new Hamiltonian. The corresponding form of the ray-theory Green’s function is obtained. This form is applied in a companion paper.

SUMMARY An S-wavefront from an isotropic region is expected to separate into two fronts when it passes into a gradually more anisotropic region. Standard ray expansions may be used to continue the waves in the anisotropic region when these two S-wavefronts have separated sufficiently. However, just inside the anisotropic region the two S-waves interfere with an effect that is stronger than the usual ω-1 corrections of the ray method. A waveform distortion can occur and this should be considered when modelling S-waves in, e.g., subduction zones with regions of isotropy grading into regions of anisotropy. The interference is studied here by local analysis of an integral equation obtained by the Green's function method. It is found that if the elasticity and its first two derivatives are continuous at the isotropy/anisotropy border, then zeroth-order ray theory may still be used to continue the incident wave into the anisotropic region. The incident displacement is simply resolved into two definite directions at the point where the anisotropy begins. These two directions are the limits of the unique eigenvectors on the anisotropic rays as the point of isotropy (onset of splitting) is approached. If the nth derivative of the elasticity is discontinuous at the isotropy/anisotropy border, then the scattering integral which describes the interference makes a correction to ray theory which is O(ω-1/n+1) in magnitude. Hence, the interference effect is stronger when the emergence of anisotropy is more gradual. Although the corrections are given by simple expressions, it is not reasonable to specify numerical velocity models up to such high-order derivatives. For a smooth interpolation scheme, such as cubic splines, it is more practical to monitor the splitting rays obtained by ray tracing and to use the best-fitting ‘equivalent’ high-order discontinuity. This will lead to an estimate of the importance of the correction terms. An example is given for a subduction zone model involving olivine alignment in the mantle-wedge above the slab.

In the search for new hydrocarbon reservoirs a number of sedimentary basins have so far been underexplored due to exploration challenges, like, e.g., difficult terrains to employ vibrator sources. Instead of conducting an active seismic survey, the first exploration data could be delivered by using natural seismicity and seismic interferometry (SI). For this purpose, arrays with continuously recording receivers would need to be installed in the exploration area. With SI, seismicity due to natural sources in the subsurface can be remapped to receiver positions on the Earth’s surface. The remapped responses can subsequently be used to create a (low-frequency) reflectivity image of the subsurface. Initially, SI was proposed as a crosscorrelation (CC) of responses. Recently, an alternative remapping procedure for passive data was proposed, by performing a multidimensional deconvolution (MDD). We evaluate both methods. We show that with both methods physical events can be retrieved correctly, also when there are moderate losses in the medium. In realistic situations, for both methods, additionally, specific artifacts are created, so-called internal events. We show how these artifacts could be recognized and removed.

A tight gas case history from the North America Rocky Mountains shows the capability of borehole microseismic and 3D seismic anisotropy to delineate fracture systems induced in a clastic reservoir by hydraulic fracturing of a horizontal well. Dual monitoring of the horizontal well completion indicates improvements in fracture mapping by compressing hypocenters of the microseisms to more linear features that are corroborated by production logging flowmeter. Fracture half-lengths and vertical heights of fractures are indicated for reservoir modelling. Advanced processing of the microseismic 3-component geophone first motions indicates fracture azimuth and dips from a moment tensor inversion and suggests a conjugate set of orthogonal fractures in the reservoir. 3D seismic anisotropy results, using a fast and slow velocity direction calculated from the data, suggest inherent microfractures present in the rock prior to completion. Surface fault mapping in the field supports fractures mapped by both the microseismic and the 3D seismic anisotropy. Multiple regression analysis of drilling, completion and 3D seismic anisotropy parameters versus initial production for 30, 90 and 180 days results show independent contributions to production. A predictive production model based on the multiple regression analysis allows for future well planning and completions to optimise well performance.

Seismic anisotropy can be caused by the presence of aligned fractures. The imaging of fracture sets using anisotropy is a valuable tool for guiding drilling strategies. Shear wave splitting (SWS) is probably the most unambiguous indicator of anisotropy. C

The principal observation from passive seismic monitoring at the Weyburn CCS/EOR project has been a very low rate of microseismicity. This has lead to the suggestion that, as CO2 has a higher compressibility, when injected it will have a lower seismic eff

In this study, we present results from linked fluid–flow, geomechanical and seismic modeling to examine the influence of fault transmissibility on seismic attributes. The model is a graben structure with two normal faults subdividing a sandstone reservoir into three compartments. The predicted seismic traveltime differences are consistent with reservoir compaction and overburden extension. For the case of high transmissibility we observe a large spatial extent in traveltime anomalies as well as a fault related stress guide effect. For lower transmissibilities, the influence of production on seismic attributes becomes more localized around the well reservoir compartment. Anisotropy predictions show perturbations associated with the faults as well as the production induced stress redistribution in the overburden.

F028 Seismic Anisotropy as an Indicator of Reservoir Quality in Siliciclastic Rocks J-M. Kendall* (University of Bristol) J. Maddock (University of Leeds) S.A. Hall (3S Laboratoire Grenoble) & Q.J. Fisher (University of Leeds) SUMMARY We present results from an integrated project that explores the potential to use observations of seismic anisotropy to interpret lithologic and fluid properties (the SAIL project). Our approach links detailed petrofabric analyses laboratory measurements of seismic velocities in core samples and reservoir-scale seismic observations. We consider a suite of sliciclastic reservoir rocks that exhibit anisotropy on three length-scales: the crystal grain and fracture scale. Crystal-preferred-orientation (CPO)

A039 Imaging Micro–Seismicity Using Surface Sensors K. Chambers* (University of Bristol) J.M. Kendall (University of Bristol) O. Barkved (BP) S. Brandsbreg-Dahl (BP) & G.A. Jones (University of Bristol) SUMMARY We outline an imaging procedure for micro-seismic events recorded on seismic arrays. The approach is based around stacking all the data consistent with an arrival from a particular time and point in the reservoir. The method does not require any hands on analysis of the data such as picking arrival times which makes it ideal for the application to large arrays of surface sensors. We present results of the migration applied

Fault plane solutions (FPSs) are estimated for microseismic events in the Yibal field, west-central Oman. We analyse 22 days of data, containing over 600 located events recorded by a maximum of 5 monitoring wells (10 downhole 3-component stations in total). 43 reliable FPSs are determined using polarities and amplitudes of direct P-, SV- and SH-waves and based on assumption of a pure double-couple source. The analysis was guided by tests with synthetic data, which were generated by the reflectivity method. We observe a transition in faulting regime from strike-slip (with a thrusting component) in the shale Fiqa cap rock to pure thrusting in the gas-charged Natih A chalk reservoir. Deeper in the field we observe another transition from strike-slip in the Nahr Umr shale cap rock to normal faulting in the oil-bearing Shuaiba chalk reservoir. Collectively the results suggest that the fault regime is controlled by style of deformation and lithology.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of intranasal diamorphine as an analgesic for use in children in accident and emergency (A&E). METHODS: A prospective, randomised clinical trial with consecutive recruitment of patients aged between 3 and 16 years with clinically suspected limb fractures. One group received 0.1 mg/kg intranasal diamorphine, and the other group received 0.2 mg/kg intramuscular morphine. At 0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 minutes pain scores, Glasgow coma score, and peripheral oxygen saturations were recorded; parental acceptability was assessed at 30 minutes. RESULTS: 58 children were recruited, with complete data collection in 51 (88%); the median summed decrease in pain score was better for intranasal diamorphine than intramuscular morphine (9 v 8), though this was not significant (P = 0.4, Mann-Whitney U test). The episode was recorded as "acceptable" in all parents whose child received intranasal diamorphine, compared with only 55% of parents in the intramuscular morphine group (P < 0.0001, Fisher's exact test). There was no incidence of decreased peripheral oxygen saturation or depression in the level of consciousness in any patient. CONCLUSIONS: Intranasal diamorphine is an effective, safe, and acceptable method of analgesia for children requiring opiates in the A & E department.

[1] The Seychelles plateau is a prime example of a microcontinent, yet mechanisms for its creation and evolution are poorly understood. Recently acquired teleseismic data from a deployment of 26 stations on 18 islands in the Seychelles are analyzed to study upper mantle seismic anisotropy using SKS splitting results. Strong microseismic noise is attenuated using a polarization filter. Results show significant variation in time delays (δt = 0.4–2.4 s) and smooth variations in orientation (ϕ = 15°–69°, where ϕ is the polarization of the fast shear wave). The splitting results cannot be explained by simple asthenospheric flow associated with absolute plate motions. Recent work has suggested that anisotropy measurements for oceanic islands surrounding Africa can be explained by mantle flow due to plate motion in combination with density-driven flow associated with the African superswell. Such a mechanism explains our results only if there are lateral variations in the viscosity of the mantle. It has been suggested that the Seychelles are underlain by a mantle plume. Predictions of flow-induced anisotropy from plume-lithosphere interaction can explain our results with a plume possibly impinging beneath the plateau. Finally, we consider lithospheric anisotropy associated with rifting processes that formed the Seychelles. The large variation in the magnitude of shear wave splitting over short distances suggests a shallow source of anisotropy. Fast directions align parallel to an area of transform faulting in the Amirantes. Farther from this area the orientation of anisotropy aligns in similar directions as plate motions. This supports suggestions of transpressive deformation during the opening of the Mascarene basin.

Seismic attenuation anisotropy provides an additional set of observations with which to constrain inversions for rock properties. In this paper we present a simple methodology for analysis of attenuation anisotropy, and apply it to observations made from microseismic data from the Valhall field. These data have been previously analysed for shear-wave splitting (Teanby et al., 2004). The attenuation anisotropy observations were made with no extra acquisition costs beyond those incurred for the shear-wave splitting analysis.

Summary Seismic anisotropy parameter estimation can be performed in the -p domain. Here we present a methodology for extracting anisotropy parameters that employs traveltime picking in the t-x domain and inversion in the -p domain. The sensitivity of the technique to the magnitude of anisotropy and offset-to-depth ratio is investigated. Offsetto-depth ratios of greater than 1.5 are a minimum requirement for any estimation method based on nonhyperbolic moveout. We apply the technique to oceanbottom data from the Valhall field in the North Sea. The results show a moderate amount of anisotropy with effective values of 0.05 to 0.08 on average. Parameter estimation, however, is affected by the presence of a gas cloud near the crest of the field.

This paper investigates the use of seismic anisotropy and amplitude variation with offset and azimuth (AVOA) for fracture characterisation. Specifically the aim of this work is to provide links between rock and fracture properties, elastic modelling and the interpretation of seismic signatures to reduce the potential ambiguity when interpreting AVOA data. Analytical expressions and numerical modelling are used to highlight the sensitivity of AVOA to fracture properties. Furthermore, little prior attention has been paid to wave propagation in media with multiple fracture alignments or fractured media with a permeable matrix therefore an investigation of AVOA for these cases is included. P-wave AVOA is of obvious interest since there are more of these data. However converted wave and shear-wave AVOA are also investigated as these may provide additional insight into fracture characteristics. It is shown that P-P and P-S AVOA hold significant information about fracturing but potential ambiguity in the interpretation of these data is observed that could lead to incorrect determination of fracture orientation. This highlights the need for forward modelling with rock properties data to constrain the interpretation. Additionally, shear-wave (S-S) AVOA is shown to exhibit significant azimuthal variations which provide strong indications of fracture orientation but only at near offsets and little insight can be gained into other fracture properties.

This chapter reports the mechanisms resulting in the assembly of gap junction intercellular communication channels. The connexin channel protein subunits are required to oligomerize into hexameric hemichannels (connexons) that may be homoor heteromeric in composition. Pairing of connexons in contacting cells leads to the formation of a gap junction unit. Subcellular fractionation studies using guinea-pig liver showed that oligomerization of connexins was complete on entry into Golgi, and that connexons showed heteromeric properties. The low ratio of connexin26 (Cx26; beta 2) relative to Cx32 (beta 1) in endomembranes compared to the approximately equal ratios found in plasma membranes and gap junctions suggest that Cx26 takes a non-classical route to the plasma membrane. Cultured cells, expressing connexin-aequorin chimeras, also provided evidence that Cx26 takes a more rapid non-classical route to the plasma membrane, because brefeldin A, a drug that disrupts the Golgi, had minimal effects on trafficking of Cx26 to the plasma membrane in contrast to its disruption of Cx32 trafficking. Finally, a cell-free approach for studying synthesis of connexons provided further evidence that Cx26 showed membrane insertion properties compatible with a more direct intracellular route to gap junctions. The presence of dual gap junction assembly pathways can explain many of the differential properties exhibited by connexins in cells.

Background The incidence of platelet transfusion reactions may depend partly on the length of storage. The influence of reactions on the effectiveness of platelet transfusions is not known. Study design and methods Platelet transfusion reactions, identified by prospective monitoring, were analyzed for the effects of component type, recipient lymphocytotoxic antibodies, bacterial contamination, and duration of storage. Posttransfusion corrected count increments (CCIs) were used to evaluate the effectiveness of transfusions associated with reactions by comparing them to those of randomly selected transfusions without reactions. Results Reactions accompanied 4 percent of the 4926 transfusions given and included 119 febrile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions, 62 allergic reactions, and 13 reactions with features of both. Platelet concentrates contained a mean of 0.5 x 10(8) white cells per unit. Lymphocytotoxic antibodies were detectable in 20 of 84 recipients tested proximate to a reaction. Bacterial cultures from 4 of 81 units were positive; 1 unit was associated with fatal Enterobacter sp. sepsis. The incidence of febrile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions but not allergic reactions was related to platelet storage duration. The CCI was not significantly different for transfusions associated with reactions (10.97 [median, range 0-72.5; n = 165]) or not so associated (13.1 [median, range 0-39.5; n = 174]) (p = 0.08). Conclusion The incidence of febrile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions but not allergic reactions appears to be related to the duration of platelet storage. Transfusion reactions may not have an adverse impact on the effectiveness of platelet transfusions.

Chimeric proteins comprising connexins 26, 32, and 43 and aequorin, a chemiluminescent calcium indicator, were made by fusing the amino terminus of aequorin to the carboxyl terminus of connexins. The retention of function by the chimeric partners was investigated. Connexin 32-aequorin and connexin 43-aequorin retained chemiluminescent activity whereas that of connexin 26-aequorin was negligible. Immunofluorescent staining of COS-7 cells expressing the chimerae showed they were targeted to the plasma membrane. Gap junction intercellular channel formation by the chimerae alone and in combination with wild-type connexins was investigated. Stable HeLa cells expressing connexin 43-aequorin were functional, as demonstrated by Lucifer yellow transfer. Paris of Xenopus oocytes expressing connexin 43-aequorin were electrophysiologically coupled, but those expressing chimeric connexin 26 or 32 showed no detectable levels of coupling. The formation of heteromeric channels constructed of chimeric connexin 32 or connexin 43 and the respective wild-type connexins was inferred from the novel voltage gating properties of the junctional conductance. The results show that the preservation of function by each partner of the chimeric protein is dictated mainly by the nature of the connexin, especially the length of the cytoplasmic carboxyl-terminal domain. The aequorin partner of the connexin 43 chimera reported calcium levels in COS-7 cells in at least two different calcium environments.