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The conservation of migratory birds poses a fundamental challenge: their conservation requires coordinated action across the hemisphere, but those actions must be designed and implemented locally. To address this challenge, we describe a multi-level framework for linking broad-scale, full annual cycle prioritizations to local conservation actions for migratory birds. We developed hemisphere-scale spatial prioritizations for the full annual cycle of migratory birds that breed in six different ecosystems in North America. The full annual cycle prioritizations provide a hemispheric context within which regional priorities can be identifieed. Finer resolution, regional prioritizations can then inform local conservation actions more effectively. We describe the importance of local conservation practitioner contributions at each level of the process and provide two examples of regional spatial prioritizations that were developed to guide local action. The fierst example focused on coastal North and South Carolina, USA, and used information on marsh birds, shorebirds, ecological integrity, and co-benefiets for people to identify Cape Romain, South Carolina as a high-priority site for conservation action. The second example in Colombia used information on migrant and resident birds to identify the Cauca Valley as a high priority site. The multi-level conceptual framework we describe is one pathway for identifying sites for implementation of local conservation actions that are guided by conservation priorities for migratory birds across their full annual cycle.

One of the most pressing questions in ecology and conservation centers on disentangling the relative impacts of concurrent global change drivers, climate and land-use/land-cover (LULC), on biodiversity. Yet studies that evaluate the effects of both drivers on species' winter distributions remain scarce, hampering our ability to develop full-annual-cycle conservation strategies. Additionally, understanding how groups of species differentially respond to climate versus LULC change is vital for efforts to enhance bird community resilience to future environmental change. We analyzed long-term changes in winter occurrence of 89 species across nine bird groups over a 90-year period within the eastern United States using Audubon Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data. We estimated variation in occurrence probability of each group as a function of spatial and temporal variation in winter climate (minimum temperature, cumulative precipitation) and LULC (proportion of group-specific and anthropogenic habitats within CBC circle). We reveal that spatial variation in bird occurrence probability was consistently explained by climate across all nine species groups. Conversely, LULC change explained more than twice the temporal variation (i.e., decadal changes) in bird occurrence probability than climate change on average across groups. This pattern was largely driven by habitat-constrained species (e.g., grassland birds, waterbirds), whereas decadal changes in occurrence probabilities of habitat-unconstrained species (e.g., forest passerines, mixed habitat birds) were equally explained by both climate and LULC changes over the last century. We conclude that climate has generally governed the winter occurrence of avifauna in space and time, while LULC change has played a pivotal role in driving distributional dynamics of species with limited and declining habitat availability. Effective land management will be critical for improving species' resilience to climate change, especially during a season of relative resource scarcity and critical energetic trade-offs.

During migration, birds must locate stopover habitats that provide sufficient resources to rest and refuel while en route to the breeding or non‐breeding area. Long‐distance migrants invariably encounter inhospitable geographic features, the edges of which are often characterized by habitat limited in food and safety. In response, they often depart in directions inconsistent with reaching their destination, presumably searching for better habitat. We used automated radio telemetry to track 442 individuals of five species to investigate the behavior of migratory birds as they departed edge habitat along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast during autumn from 2008 to 2014. Most migrants (75%) retreated inland or detoured around rather than advanced across the Gulf, but this depended on bird species and fat‐based energy stores. Most individuals in lean condition or of smaller bodied species tended to retreat or detour, rather than advance, when departing from the coast. Twenty‐one percent of all birds that departed the coast in 2013–2014 were redetected over 45 km inland, providing a unique opportunity to compare stopover duration, departure times and travel speeds between migrants that retreat away from the coast and those that continue to advance toward their destination. Individuals that retreated the coast and were redetected inland spent ~1 day on the coast before retreating inland, where they spent 11 days before resuming migration. Further when those same individuals retreated from the coast, they departed around evening civil twilight, whereas those that advanced from inland habitats departed after evening civil twilight. Travel speeds were slower for individuals retreating inland compared to those advancing towards the coast from inland habitats. The differences between retreating and advancing individuals suggest how an individual's drive to feed or fly influences behavior. Our study illustrates how the sum of individual decisions can shape habitat use, landscape‐scale movements and migration strategies.

For many avian species, spatial migration patterns remain largely undescribed, especially across hemispheric extents. Recent advancements in tracking technologies and high-resolution species distribution models (i.e., eBird Status and Trends products) provide new insights into migratory bird movements and offer a promising opportunity for integrating independent data sources to describe avian migration. Here, we present a three-stage modeling framework for estimating spatial patterns of avian migration. First, we integrate tracking and band re-encounter data to quantify migratory connectivity, defined as the relative proportions of individuals migrating between breeding and nonbreeding regions. Next, we use estimated connectivity proportions along with eBird occurrence probabilities to produce probabilistic least-cost path (LCP) indices. In a final step, we use generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) both to evaluate the ability of LCP indices to accurately predict (i.e., as a covariate) observed locations derived from tracking and band re-encounter data sets versus pseudo-absence locations during migratory periods and to create a fully integrated (i.e., eBird occurrence, LCP, and tracking/band re-encounter data) spatial prediction index for mapping species-specific seasonal migrations. To illustrate this approach, we apply this framework to describe seasonal migrations of 12 bird species across the Western Hemisphere during pre- and postbreeding migratory periods (i.e., spring and fall, respectively). We found that including LCP indices with eBird occurrence in GAMMs generally improved the ability to accurately predict observed migratory locations compared to models with eBird occurrence alone. Using three performance metrics, the eBird + LCP model demonstrated equivalent or superior fit relative to the eBird-only model for 22 of 24 species-season GAMMs. In particular, the integrated index filled in spatial gaps for species with over-water movements and those that migrated over land where there were few eBird sightings and, thus, low predictive ability of eBird occurrence probabilities (e.g., Amazonian rainforest in South America). This methodology of combining individual-based seasonal movement data with temporally dynamic species distribution models provides a comprehensive approach to integrating multiple data types to describe broad-scale spatial patterns of animal movement. Further development and customization of this approach will continue to advance knowledge about the full annual cycle and conservation of migratory birds.

Context Conservation for the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), a federally endangered species in the United States of America, is typically focused on local maternity sites; however, the species is a regional migrant, interacting with the environment at multiple spatial scales. Hierarchical levels of management may be necessary, but we have limited knowledge of landscape-level ecology, distribution, and connectivity of suitable areas in complex landscapes. Objectives We sought to (1) identify factors influencing M. sodalis maternity colony distribution in a mosaic landscape, (2) map suitable maternity habitat, and (3) quantify connectivity importance of patches to direct conservation action. Methods Using 3 decades of occurrence data, we tested a priori, hypothesis-driven habitat suitability models. We mapped suitable areas and quantified connectivity importance of habitat patches with probabilistic habitat availability metrics. Results Factors improving landscape-scale suitability included limited agriculture, more forest cover, forest edge, proximity to medium-sized water bodies, lower elevations, and limited urban development. Areas closer to hibernacula and rivers were suitable. Binary maps showed that 30% of the study area was suitable for M. sodalis and 29% was important for connectivity. Most suitable patches were important for intra-patch connectivity and far fewer contributed to inter-patch connectivity. Conclusions While simple models may be effective for small, homogenous landscapes, complex models are needed to explain habitat suitability in large, mixed landscapes. Suitability modeling identified factors that made sites attractive as maternity areas. Connectivity analysis improved our understanding of important areas for bats and prioritized areas to target for restoration.

Background For migrating birds, stopover requires spending time and energy that otherwise could be allocated to flying. Thus, birds optimally refuel their subsequent migratory flight by reducing stopover duration or foraging activity in food-rich environments. In coastal habitats, birds may forego refueling and take short stopovers irrespective of local food availability. Given the paucity of studies exploring how migrants adjust stopover behavior in response to temporal variation in food availability, especially in the Neotropics, we fixed radio tags to 51 Red-eyed Vireos (Vireo olivaceous) over two years at two sites on the coast of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula. Methods We applied VHF radio tags during the fall of 2016 and 2017, and tracked birds using automatic and manual receiving units. We estimated stopover duration and activity levels (one site only) for between six and fifteen birds, depending on site and year. We measured fruit availability weekly along the net lanes where we captured birds. We used a generalized linear model to estimate the relationships between stopover duration/activity level and fruit density, bird body mass and year. We interpreted relationships for the model with the lowest AICc value. Results We found that approximately half of the birds departed on the same day they were captured. For the birds that stayed longer, we could not discern whether they did so because they were light, or fruit density was high. On the other hand, lighter birds were more active than heavier birds but only in one of the two years. Conclusions Given our results, it is unlikely that Red-eyed Vireos refuel along the Yucatan coast. However, they still likely need to recuperate from crossing the Gulf of Mexico, which may necessitate foraging more often if in poor body condition. If the birds then move inland then stopover should be thought of as a large-scale phenomenon, where habitats with different functions may be spread out over a broad landscape.

In migratory stopover habitats, bird abundance and composition change on a near daily basis. On any given day, the local bird community should reflect local environmental conditions but also the environments that birds encountered previously along their migratory route. For example, during fall migration, the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico receives birds that have just crossed the Gulf of Mexico and their abundance and composition may be associated with regional factors such as wind conditions experienced on previous dates. Other factors, such as local fruit availability, may also influence daily variation in bird abundance and composition. Using mist net data from 2 coastal national parks in the Yucatan Peninsula during fall migration in 2016 and 2017, we did not find a strong association between daily changes in bird abundance or community composition with wind conditions and ripe fruit availability. Thus, despite wind and fruit being known to be important to individual birds (influencing stopover duration and departure decisions), their effects might not scale up to be drivers of population and community level variation. On the other hand, we found that the 2 sites shared only about half of their species and those shared species had different temporal abundance patterns at each site. Site and year differences in temporal patterns of migration might arise because populations of the same species are on different migration routes and schedules. While bird arrival is not timed to hit peaks in fruit production in our study sites, whether bird–resource mismatch is a general characteristic of tropical coastal stopover habitats requires further research. If birds on migration have adapted to seasonal variation in food availability, they might be equipped to deal with the additional variability in food supply that is expected to occur with climate change.

Migration is an important component of some species full annual cycle. California's Central Valley and the Colorado River Delta provide important riparian and wetland habitats for migrating waterbirds in the arid west of North America, but little is known about whether these locations are important at the population level to migrating landbirds. We used eBird Status and Trends abundance data to quantify the importance of the Central Valley and Colorado River Delta to landbirds by estimating the proportion of the breeding population of 112 species that use each site during migration. We found that ∼17 million landbirds use the Colorado River Delta in the spring and ∼14 million in the fall. Across 4 study regions in the Central Valley, up to ∼65 million landbirds migrate through in the spring and up to ∼48 million in the fall. In the spring and fall, respectively, up to 37 and up to 30 species had at least 1% of their continental population migrate through the study regions. We also quantified the spatial concentration of each species across latitudinal transects to determine the extent to which study regions were acting as migratory bottlenecks. Landbird abundances were spatially concentrated in study regions 29.4% of all migration weeks, indicating that each study region acts as a migratory bottleneck. This application of eBird data is a powerful approach to quantifying the importance of sites to migrating birds. Our results provide evidence of population-level importance of the Central Valley and Colorado River Delta for many migratory landbirds.LAY SUMMARYMigratory birds are declining throughout North America, and we must identify places birds need during migration so they can safely move between breeding and winter locations. The Colorado River Delta and the Central Valley are known as important landscapes for wildlife, but their importance to migrating landbirds is not well known. We used eBird data to measure the importance of the Colorado River Delta and California's Central Valley to birds that migrate through western North America. Many species have substantial portions of their populations that depend on these locations during migration. Conservation of the Colorado River Delta and Central Valley are important for the entire populations of many breeding landbird species of North America.

During migration, birds require stopover habitat to rest and refuel before resuming flight. While long-distance migratory flights represent a large energy investment, stopover accounts for roughly two-thirds of a bird's total energy expenditure during migration. Therefore, birds should minimize energy expenditure while also minimizing time and predation risk during stopover. To understand activity during migration, we recorded activity patterns (i.e. fine-scale movements associated with a range of behaviors) of 3 species, Red-eyed Vireo (Vireo olivaceus), Swainson's Thrush (Catharus ustulatus), and Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), at a stopover site along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico during autumn migration using automated radio telemetry. We found Red-eyed Vireos to be the most active and Swainson's Thrushes the least active. For each species, we used boosted regression trees to investigate associations between activity and factors known to influence bird behavior during stopover....

Most species are distributed such that their density and occupancy is greatest in one habitat, although they are found in other habitats. For example, a species with a high affinity for forests (its primary habitat) may also use urban areas and shrublands (its alternative habitat), although occupancy of these habitats would be lower. While habitat loss is the main conservation threat for most species, less is known about how changes in primary and alternative habitats impact populations. We used a systematic bird survey of the state of Illinois that spanned the past century to investigate how use of specific habitats was related to population changes. Specifically, we used a hierarchical Bayesian model to investigate the relationship between changes in statewide occupancy (probability a species would occur in a study site) and use of specific habitats (probability a species would be in a specific habitat within our study sites) for 66 species sampled in 1906–1909 and 2006–2008. Changes in the use...

Knowing how naive migrants respond to intrinsic and extrinsic factors experienced en route will allow a more thorough understanding of the endogenous migratory programme. To understand how inexperienced individuals respond to ecological features, we tracked the migratory departures of juvenile ruby-throated hummingbirds, Archilochus colubris, one of the smallest (∼ 3 g) and least-studied migrants, along the Gulf of Mexico during southbound migration using an international automated radiotelemetry system. The recent miniaturization of radiotags provides a novel method to track one of the smallest migratory birds, rendering the first information on departure decisions of known hummingbirds in relation to an ecological barrier. Using weather conditions and individual attributes, we also determined which factors influenced the time and direction of departure from a coastal stopover site. Most migrants (83%) departed in the morning, and daily departure time was only influenced by stopover duration, the amount of time spent at a stopover site. The majority (77%) of departure orientations paralleled the coastline, and we found little influence of any factor on departure direction. Our results reveal that (1) juvenile hummingbirds departing coastal Alabama move in a direction indicative of a circum-Gulf path during southbound migration and (2) departure decisions support a fly-and-forage strategy in which hummingbirds likely take advantage of resources along the coast while moving towards their destination.

Habitats around the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) provide critical resources for Nearctic–Neotropical migratory landbirds, the majority of which travel across or around the GOM every spring and fall as they migrate between temperate breeding grounds in North America and tropical wintering grounds in the Caribbean and Central and South America. At the same time, ecosystems in the GOM are changing rapidly, with unknown consequences for migratory landbird populations, many of which are experiencing population declines. In general, the extent to which events encountered en route limit migratory bird populations is not well understood. At the same time, information from weather surveillance radar, stable isotopes, tracking, eBird, and genetic datasets is increasingly available to address many of the unanswered questions about bird populations that migrate through stopover and airspace habitats in the GOM. We review the state of the science and identify key research needs to understand the impacts of en route e...

Many migratory bird species are declining, and the migratory period may limit populations because of the risk in traversing large geographical features during passage. Using automated radio-telemetry, we tracked 139 Swainson's thrushes ( Catharus ustulatus ) departing coastal Alabama, USA and crossing the Gulf of Mexico to arrive in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico during autumn. We estimated apparent survival and examined how extrinsic (weather variables and day of year) and intrinsic (fat load, sex and age) factors influenced survival using a mark-recapture approach. We also examined how favourability of winds for crossing the Gulf varied over the past 25 years. Fat load, day of year and wind profit were important factors in predicting which individuals survived crossing the Gulf. Survival estimates varied with wind profit and fat, but generally, fat birds departing on days with favourable wind profits had an apparent survival probability of greater than 0.90, while lean individuals with no or negative wind profits had less than 0.33. The proportion of favourable nights varied within and among years, but has increased over the last 25 years. While conservation strategies cannot improve extrinsic factors, they can provide opportunities for birds to refuel before crossing large geographical features through protecting and creating high-quality stopover sites.

Quiescence is a period of inactivity that occurs before the onset of migratory activity in nocturnally migrating birds. This behavior has been observed in captive birds in migratory disposition, but its occurrence in free-ranging migratory birds has been documented only anecdotally, and causal factors and function(s), if any, are unknown. In this study, we documented and characterized quiescence in three migratory songbird species (red-eyed vireo [Vireo olivaceus], Swainson’s thrush [Catharus ustulatus], and wood thrush [Hylocichla mustelina]) by measuring movement and proportion of time spent inactive prior to departure from a stopover site during fall migration. Individuals of each species displayed a period of inactivity prior to departure which varied from less than 30 min to over 90 min with red-eyed vireos engaged in the longest, most pronounced quiescence. We also examined how quiescence was related to intrinsic and extrinsic factors known to influence the departure of migrating birds, and found some evidence for an effect of age and departure time but no effect of a migrant’s energetic condition, departure direction, atmospheric conditions around departure, or day of year on quiescence. Our novel application of an automated radiotelemetry system yielded a large amount of data to characterize quiescence in free-ranging migratory birds, and we provide guidance for future studies to tease apart the various causal factors and function(s) of this migratory behavior. Quiescence is a poorly understood period of inactivity observed among captive and free-ranging migratory songbirds prior to the onset of nocturnal activity. Our novel use of automated radiotelemetry revealed quiescence among three intercontinental migratory songbirds. It also enabled us to ask how quiescence might be related to intrinsic and extrinsic factors known to influence the departure of migrating birds, and provided an opportunity to explore possible function(s), if any, of this intriguing behavior.

During long-distance fall migrations, nocturnally migrating Swainson’s Thrushes often stop on the northern Gulf of Mexico coast before flying across the Gulf. To minimize energetic costs, trans-Gulf migrants should stop over when they encounter crosswinds or headwinds, and depart with supportive tailwinds. However, time constrained migrants should be less selective, balancing costs of headwinds with benefits of continuing their migrations. To test the hypotheses that birds select supportive winds and that selectivity is mediated by seasonal time constraints, we examined whether local winds affected Swainson’s Thrushes’ arrival and departure at Ft. Morgan, Alabama, USA at annual, seasonal, and nightly time scales. Additionally, migrants could benefit from forecasting future wind conditions, crossing on nights when winds are consistently supportive across the Gulf, thereby avoiding the potentially lethal consequences of depleting their energetic reserves over water. To test whether birds forecast, we developed a movement model, calculated to what extent departure winds were predictive of future Gulf winds, and tested whether birds responded to predictability. Swainson’s Thrushes were only slightly selective and did not appear to forecast. By following the simple rule of avoiding only the strongest headwinds at departure, Swainson’s Thrushes could survive the 1500 km flight between Alabama and Veracruz, Mexico.

Volant organisms are adapted to atmospheric patterns and processes. Understanding the lives of animals that inhabit this aerial environment requires a detailed investigation of both the animal’s behavior and its environmental context—i.e., the environment that it encounters at a range of spatial and temporal scales. For aerofauna, it has been relatively difficult to observe the environment they encounter while they move. Large international efforts using satellite and weather model reanalysis now provide some of the environmental data on atmospheric environments throughout the globe. Track annotation—the approach of merging the environmental data with the movement track measured via telemetry—can be conducted automatically using online tools such as Movebank-Env-DATA or RNCEP. New parameterization approaches can use environmentally annotated tracks to approximate specific atmospheric conditions, such as uplift and tail wind, which are not typically observed at the exact locations of the movement, but are critical to movement. Reducing the complexity of movement to single-dimensional characteristic (such as flight speed, elevation, etc.) and defining the temporal scope of the movement phenomenon in the focus of the analysis (seasonal, daily, minutely, etc.) makes it possible to construct empirical models that explain the movement characteristic as driven by the environmental conditions during flight, despite the highly dynamic, complex, and scale-dependent structures of both the flight path and atmospheric variables. This chapter will provide several examples for such empirical movement models from different species of birds and using several resources for atmospheric data.

Stopover locations represent critical habitat in the life cycle of migratory birds and the alteration of this habitat can profoundly influence a population. American Golden-Plovers (Pluvialis dominica) migrate though the Midwestern United States each spring, where most natural habitat has been converted to row crop agriculture. We investigated the stopover ecology of the golden-plover in the agricultural matrix of east-central Illinois and west-central Indiana between 2008 and 2012. We found that golden-plovers remained in the region for ∼45 days and individuals spent on average 24 days in the area before departing to the northwest. During a period of peak migration, golden-plovers preferred fields with standing water and, to a lesser extent, soybean fields. Over the 45-day stopover duration, golden-plovers moved extensively (shown by a dynamic occupancy model and area used estimation), with some evidence for tilled fields becoming unoccupied at greater rates than untilled fields. The tendency to...

Summary 1. Animals produce sounds for diverse biological functions such as defending territories, attracting mates, deterring predators, navigation, finding food and maintaining contact with members of their social group. Biologists can take advantage of these acoustic behaviours to gain valuable insights into the spatial and temporal scales over which individuals and populations interact. Advances in bioacoustic technology, including the development of autonomous cabled and wireless recording arrays, permit data collection at multiple locations over time. These systems are transforming the way we study individuals and populations of animals and are leading to significant advances in our understandings of the complex interactions between animals and their habitats. 2. Here, we review questions that can be addressed using bioacoustic approaches, by providing a primer on technologies and approaches used to study animals at multiple organizational levels by ecologists, behaviourists and conservation biologists. 3. Spatially dispersed groups of microphones (arrays) enable users to study signal directionality on a small scale or to locate animals and track their movements on a larger scale. 4. Advances in algorithm development can allow users to discriminate among species, sexes, age groups and individuals. 5. With such technology, users can remotely and non-invasively survey populations, describe the soundscape, quantify anthropogenic noise, study species interactions, gain new insights into the social dynamics of sound-producing animals and track the effects of factors such as climate change and habitat fragmentation on phenology and biodiversity. 6. There remain many challenges in the use of acoustic monitoring, including the difficulties in performing signal recognition across taxa. The bioacoustics community should focus on developing a

Point counts are the most frequently used technique for sampling bird populations and communities, but have well-known limitations such as inter- and intraobserver errors and limited availability of expert field observers. The use of acoustic recordings to survey birds offers solutions to these limitations. We designed a Soundscape Recording System (SRS) that combines a four-channel, discrete microphone system with a quadraphonic playback system for surveying bird communities. We compared the effectiveness of SRS and point counts for estimating species abundance, richness, and composition of riparian breeding birds in California by comparing data collected simultaneously using both methods. We used the temporal-removal method to estimate individual bird detection probabilities and species abundances using the program MARK. Akaike's Information Criterion provided strong evidence that detection probabilities differed between the two survey methods and among the 10 most common species. The probability of detecting birds was higher when listening to SRS recordings in the laboratory than during the field survey. Additionally, SRS data demonstrated a better fit to the temporal-removal model assumptions and yielded more reliable estimates of detection probability and abundance than point-count data. Our results demonstrate how the perceptual constraints of observers can affect temporal detection patterns during point counts and thus influence abundance estimates derived from time-of-detection approaches. We used a closed-population capture-recapture approach to calculate jackknife estimates of species richness and average species detection probabilities for SRS and point counts using the program CAPTURE. SRS and point counts had similar species richness and detection probabilities. However, the methods differed in the composition of species detected based on Jaccard's similarity index. Most individuals (83%) detected during point counts vocalized at least once during the survey period and were available for detection using a purely acoustic technique, such as SRS. SRS provides an effective method for surveying bird communities, particularly when most species are detected by sound. SRS can eliminate or minimize observer biases, produce permanent records of surveys, and resolve problems associated with the limited availability of expert field observers.

Animal habitat selection is a central focus of ecology and conservation biology. Understanding habitat associations in migratory animals is particularly complicated because individuals have variable habitat requirements during the annual cycle, across their geographic range, along migratory routes, and at multiple spatial scales. We studied habitat associations of 16 fall Nearctic-Neotropical migratory land birds at two spatial scales at a stopover site along the northern Yucatan coast to examine scale-dependent habitat use, identify proximate cues shaping birds' distributions, and evaluate similarities in habitat use between our tropical stopover site and temperate sites. We addressed scale-dependent habitat associations in two ways, by (1) quantifying species' distributions among and within broad vegetation types and (2) comparing migrants' associations with architectural gradients between the two spatial scales. We also evaluated the relative importance of vegetation architecture and floristics in explaining migrants' distributions within broad coastal vegetation types. Bird species were nonrandomly distributed among broad- and fine-scale vegetation types, and patterns of habitat use varied between the two scales. Moreover, birds had different preferences for vegetation architecture at the two scales, which may reflect trade-offs between competing demands and/or reduced variation in vegetation at the small scale in our study. These findings illustrate the manner in which spatial scale and range of vegetation variation influence perceptions of animal-habitat associations. Within broad coastal vegetation types birds refined their distributions in relation to architectural and floristic attributes, which provided them with redundant and/or complementary information regarding the distribution of suitable habitat. We suggest that the relative importance of architecture and floristics is likely scale-dependent. Habitat use at our site was similar to that observed at temperate stopover sites for almost all species, indicating that habitat affinities are maintained along the migratory route for these eastern populations despite latitudinal changes in environmental factors. We highlight examples of similar patterns observed in other migratory and nonmigratory animals to illustrate the generality of these patterns beyond en route land birds and our tropical site. We also indicate where we expect to see differences and outline areas of research that merit greater attention in order to advance our understanding of animal habitat selection.

We quantified temporal turnover in the composition of fall migrant landbird communities along the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula using Detrended Correspondence Analysis. The presence of winter residents of many migrant species at the site prevented turnover from being complete. However, early and late season transient communities shared few, if any, species in common. Point-count surveys showed greater compositional change than net surveys that included winter residents. The rate of species turnover was generally slow until the middle of the season, when it reached a maximum, and decreased again toward the end of the season as species composition began to converge on that characteristic of the winter community. Within-season patterns of species turnover were similar between net- and point-count surveys and were consistent across years. Species that winter farther south arrived at the site significantly earlier than those wintering at more northern latitudes; however, there was no association with breeding latitude. Additionally, insectivores arrived significantly earlier than omnivores and granivores. The amount of turnover among foliage-gleaning insectivores was less than that for all species in the community, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis that competition during migration has played a role in shaping temporal patterns in species co-occurrence and turnover. For species that co-occur in time during migration, spatial segregation at various scales, as well as differences in foraging behavior and diet, may act to reduce competition at stopover sites. Patrones Temporales en Comunidades Migratorias de Otoño en Yucatán, México Resumen. Cuantificamos el recambio temporal en la composición de comunidades de aves terrestres migratorias de otoño a lo largo de la costa norte de la península de Yucatán usando análisis de correspondencia con efecto de arco corregido. La presencia de residentes invernales de muchas especies migratorias en el sitio evitó el recambio completo de especies. Sin embargo, las comunidades transitorias a principios y fines de la estación compartieron pocas o ninguna especie. Los muestreos de conteos por punto mostraron cambios en la composición mayores que los muestreos de redes de niebla que incluyeron residentes invernales. La tasa de recambio de especies fue generalmente lenta hasta mediados de la estación, cuando alcanzó un máximo, y disminuyó de nuevo hacia finales de la estación a medida que la composición de especies comenzó a parecerse a la de la comunidad invernal. Los patrones de recambio de especies de cada estación fueron similares entre los muestreos de redes de niebla y los conteos por punto, y fueron consistentes entre años. Las especies que invernaron más al sur llegaron al sitio significativamente más temprano que aquellas que invernaron en latitudes más septentrionales; sin embargo, no hubo una asociación con la latitud en la que criaron las especies. Además, los insectívoros llegaron significativamente más temprano que los omnívoros y los granívoros. La cantidad de recambio entre insectí voros que toman sus presas en el follaje fue menor que el recambio de todas las especies de la comunidad consideradas juntas, lo cual no es consistente con la hipótesis de que la competencia durante la migración ha jugado un papel en modelar los patrones temporales en la presencia conjunta y el recambio de especies. Para las especies cuya presencia coincide en el tiempo durante la migración, la segregación espacial a varias escalas, como también las diferencias en el comportamiento de forrajeo y en la dieta, pueden operar para reducir la competencia en los sitios de escala.

Sarracenia purpurea L. is a carnivorous pitcher plant that attracts insect prey by producing nectar. We compared amount of sugar in different samples of nectar collected during the day and night and from bagged and nonbagged pitchers. Sugar content was measured in nectar samples from 87 pitchers at 3 h intervals over a 24 h period through the use of a wick-sampling technique and a colorimetric assay. We monitored environmental conditions at the time of nectar collection and correlated them with the amount of sugar/wick. We also measured ten pitcher characteristics and examined their relationship to variations in 24 h sugar amount. Sugar amount was higher at night for both bagged and nonbagged pitchers. During the day nonbagged pitchers had lower sugar amounts than bagged pitchers, perhaps due to removal of nectar by insects. A similar, but less pronounced, difference was observed at night. Relative humidity, air and ground temperature and time of day had little effect on sugar amount. Our data su...

Natural fluctuations in the availability of critical stopover sites coupled with anthropogenic destruction of wetlands, land-use change, and anticipated losses due to climate change present migratory birds with a formidable challenge. Space based technology in concert with bird migration modeling and geographical information analysis yields new opportunities to shed light on the distribution and movement of organisms on the planet and their sensitivity to human disturbances and environmental changes. At the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, we are creating ecological forecasting tools for science and application users to address the consequences of loss of wetlands, flooding, drought or other natural disasters such as hurricanes on avian biodiversity and bird migration. We use an individual-based bird biophysical migration model, driven by remotely sensed land surface data, climate and hydrologic data, and biological field observations to study migratory bird responses to environmental change in North America. Simulation allows us to study bird migration across multiple scales and can be linked to mechanistic processes describing the time and energy budget states of migrating birds. We illustrate our approach by simulating the spring migration of pectoral sandpipers from the Gulf of Mexico to Alaska. Mean stopover length and trajectory patterns are consistent with field observations.

Long-distance migratory shorebirds require wetland stopover sites where they can forage and deposit sufficient fat to complete their migration and, in the spring, reproduce. Conservation biologists are concerned that continental-scale reductions in wetland availability and quality due to human disturbance, climate change, and natural drought events are negatively impacting these species by eliminating critical stopovers along migratory flyways. We describe an individual-based migration model driven by remotely sensed land surface data, climate data assimilation models, and biological field data to examine the impact of changing environmental conditions on migration routes, temporal patterns, and fitness. We used an evolutionary programming approach to evaluate birds' adaptive responses to variation in refueling potential in the landscape. Birds' shifted their migratory routes and extended their stopovers as the mean quality of the landscape decreased and spatial variation in refueling potential increased. We discuss possible applications of our model for understanding inter-annual climate variation, climate change, and wetland loss.

Comparisons between field observers and acoustic recording systems have shown great promise for sampling birds using acoustics methods. Comparisons provide information about the performance of recording systems and field observers but do not provide a robust validation of their true sampling performance—i.e., precision and accuracy relative to known population size and richness. We used a 35-speaker bird song simulation system to experimentally test the accuracy and precision of two stereo (Telinga and SS1) and one quadraphonic recording system (SRS) for estimating species richness, abundance, and total abundance (across all species) of vocalizing birds. We simulated 25 bird communities under natural field conditions by placing speakers in a wooded area at 4–119 m from the center of the survey at differing heights and orientations. We assigned recordings randomly to one of eight skilled observers. We found a significant difference among microphones in their ability to accurately estimate richness (p = 0.0019) and total bird abundance (p = < 0.0001). Our study demonstrates that acoustic recording systems can potentially estimate bird abundance and species richness accurately; however, their performance is likely to vary by its technical characteristics (recording pattern, microphone arrangement, etc.).