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Plant growth-promoting endophytic (PGPE) actinomycetes have been known to enhance plant growth and mitigate plant from abiotic stresses via their PGP-traits. In this study, PGPE Streptomyces sp. GKU 895 promoted growth and alleviated salt tolerance of salt-susceptible rice cultivar IR29 by augmentation of plant weight and declined ROS after irrigation with 150 mM NaCl in a pot experiment. Transcriptome analysis of IR29 exposed to the combination of strain GKU 895 and salinity demonstrated up and downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) classified by gene ontology and plant reactome. Streptomyces sp. GKU 895 induced changes in expression of rice genes including transcription factors under salt treatment which involved in growth and development, photosynthesis, plant hormones, ROS scavenging, ion transport and homeostasis, and plant–microbe interactions regarding pathogenesis- and symbiosis-related proteins. Taken together, these data demonstrate that PGPE Streptomyces sp. GKU 895 colonized and enhanced growth of rice IR29 and triggered salt tolerance phenotype. Our findings suggest that utilisation of beneficial endophytes in the saline fields could allow for the use of such marginal soils for growing rice and possibly other crops.

The global increase in antimicrobial-resistant infections means that there is a need to develop new antimicrobial molecules and strategies to combat the issue. Aurodox is a linear polyketide natural product that is produced by Streptomyces goldiniensis, yet little is known about aurodox biosynthesis or the nature of the biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) that encodes its production. To gain a deeper understanding of aurodox biosynthesis by S. goldiniensis, the whole genome of the organism was sequenced, revealing the presence of an 87 kb hybrid polyketide synthase/non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (PKS/NRPS) BGC. The aurodox BGC shares significant homology with the kirromycin BGC from S. collinus T? 365. However, the genetic organization of the BGC differs significantly. The candidate aurodox gene cluster was cloned and expressed in a heterologous host to demonstrate that it was responsible for aurodox biosynthesis and disruption of the primary PKS gene (aurAI) abolished aurodox production. These data supported a model whereby the initial core biosynthetic reactions involved in aurodox biosynthesis followed that of kirromycin. Cloning aurM∗ from S. goldiniensis and expressing this in the kirromycin producer S. collinus T? 365 enabled methylation of the pyridone group, suggesting this is the last step in biosynthesis. This methylation step is also sufficient to confer the unique type III secretion system inhibitory properties to aurodox. IMPORTANCE Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is a significant global pathogen for which traditional antibiotic treatment is not recommended. Aurodox inhibits the ability of EHEC to establish infection in the host gut through the specific targeting of the type III secretion system while circumventing the induction of toxin production associated with traditional antibiotics. These properties suggest aurodox could be a promising anti-virulence compound for EHEC, which merits further investigation. Here, we characterized the aurodox biosynthetic gene cluster from Streptomyces goldiniensis and established the key enzymatic steps of aurodox biosynthesis that give rise to the unique anti-virulence activity. These data provide the basis for future chemical and genetic approaches to produce aurodox derivatives with increased efficacy and the potential to engineer novel elfamycins.

Actinobacteria is an ancient phylum of Gram-positive bacteria with a characteristic high GC content to their DNA. The ActinoBase Wiki is focused on the filamentous actinobacteria, such as

We report the genome sequence of Streptomyces goldiniensis ATCC 21386, a strain which produces the anti-bacterial and anti-virulence polyketide, aurodox. The genome of S. goldiniensis ATCC 21386 was sequenced using a multiplatform hybrid approach, revealing a linear genome of ~10 Mbp with a G+C content of 71 %. The genome sequence revealed 36 putative biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), including a large region of 271 Kbp that was rich in biosynthetic capability. The genome sequence is deposited in DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank with the accession number PRJNA602141.

We report the genome sequence of

The global increase in antimicrobial-resistant infections means that there is a need to develop new antimicrobial molecules and strategies to combat the issue. Aurodox is a linear polyketide natural product that is produced by Streptomyces goldiniensis, yet little is known about aurodox biosynthesis or the nature of the biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) that encodes its production. To gain a deeper understanding of aurodox biosynthesis by S. goldiniensis, the whole genome of the organism was sequenced, revealing the presence of an 87 kb hybrid Polyketide Synthase/Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthetase (PKS/NRPS) BGC. The aurodox BGC shares significant homology with the kirromycin BGC from S. collinus Tϋ 365; however, the genetic organisation of the BGC differs significantly. The candidate aurodox gene cluster was cloned and expressed in a heterologous host to demonstrate that it was responsible for aurodox biosynthesis and disruption of the primary PKS gene (aurAI) abolished aurodox production. These data support a model whereby the initial core biosynthetic reactions involved in aurodox biosynthesis follow that of kirromycin. Cloning aurM* from S. goldiniensis and expressing this in the kirromycin producer S. collinus Tϋ 365 enabled methylation of the pyridone group, suggesting this is the last step in biosynthesis. This methylation step is also sufficient to confer the unique Type III Secretion System inhibitory properties to aurodox.ImportanceEnterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is a significant global pathogen for which traditional antibiotic treatment is not recommended. Aurodox inhibits the ability of EHEC to establish infection in the host gut through the specific targeting of the Type III Secretion System, whilst circumventing the induction of toxin production associated with traditional antibiotics. These properties suggest aurodox could be a promising anti-virulence compound for EHEC, which merits further investigation. Here, we have characterised the aurodox biosynthetic gene cluster from Streptomyces goldiniensis and have established the key enzymatic steps of aurodox biosynthesis that give rise to the unique anti-virulence activity. These data provide the basis for future chemical and genetic approaches to produce aurodox derivatives with increased efficacy and the potential to engineer novel elfamycins.

Polar and subpolar ecosystems are highly vulnerable to global climate change with consequences for biodiversity and community composition. Bacteria are directly impacted by future environmental change and it is therefore essential to have a better understanding of microbial communities in fluctuating ecosystems. Exploration of Polar environments, specifically sediments, represents an exciting opportunity to uncover bacterial and chemical diversity and link this to ecosystem and evolutionary parameters. In terms of specialized metabolite production, the bacterial order

Streptomyces species are important producers of bioactive compounds such as antibiotics, antitumor and immunosuppressant drugs. Around two-thirds of all known natural antibiotics are produced by these bacteria and antibiotic production is linked to sporulation. The discovery of new bioactive compounds has declined since the 1960s but genome sequencing has revealed the potential to identify many more bioactive compounds. They are many secondary metabolite gene clusters which are inactive (silent) under laboratory conditions. We characterize the highly conserved actinobacterial two component system MtrAB which coordinates sporulation with secondary metabolite production in the two model organisms Streptomyces venezuelae and S. coelicolor. Deletion of the histidine kinase gene mtrB resulted in increased production of the antibiotic chloramphenicol in S. venezuelae and actinorhodin and undecylprodigiosin in S. coelicolor. Chloramphenicol is not usually produced under laboratory condition which suggests that deleting mtrB can activate silent antibiotic clusters. Additionally, we introduced point mutations at the D56 phosphorylation site of MtrA by CRISPR-Cas9 to abolish phosphorylation. This mutant shows the same phenotype as the ΔmtrA strain and chloramphenicol production is increased. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and sequencing (ChIP-seq) was used to identify MtrA targets and revealed that MtrA likely controls secondary metabolite production by binding to the promoter regions of cluster situated regulators in both model organisms. Additionally, MtrA binds upstream of genes involved in DNA replication and cell division. To our knowledge this is the first evidence of the connection of development and secondary metabolite production by a two component system.

Streptomyces is a genus of soil dwelling actinomycetes that play an important role in plant health through association with plant roots. They provide an array of benefits to the plant host such as infectious disease prevention and plant growth promotion. We investigate the role of nitric oxide (NO), a ubiquitous signalling molecule used by plants and bacteria alike, in root colonisation by Streptomyces coelicolor. Plating studies were conducted for Arabidopsis thaliana and Triticum aestivum. Relative colonisation was determined by comparing selective recovery of marked mutant strains, alongside a marked control. The effect of increased endogenous NO was interrogated with a deletion mutant of nsrR-hmpA – genes responsible for NO detoxification in Streptomyces. Strains were also engineered to express recombinant NO synthase genes, to investigate the impact of NO production by the bacteria. We show that S. coelicolor ΔnsrR-hmpA is significantly more competent at colonising T. aestivum rhizosphere compared to the control (P

NsrR is an iron-sulfur cluster protein that regulates the nitric oxide (NO) stress response of many bacteria. NsrR from Streptomyces coelicolor regulates its own expression and that of only two other genes, hmpA1 and hmpA2, which encode HmpA enzymes predicted to detoxify NO. NsrR binds promoter DNA with high affinity only when coordinating a [4Fe-4S] cluster. Here we show that reaction of [4Fe-4S] NsrR with NO affects DNA binding differently depending on the gene promoter. Binding to the hmpA2 promoter was abolished at ∼2 NO per cluster, although for the hmpA1 and nsrR promoters, ∼4 and ∼8 NO molecules, respectively, were required to abolish DNA binding. Spectroscopic and kinetic studies of the NO reaction revealed a rapid, multi-phase, non-concerted process involving up to 8–10 NO molecules per cluster, leading to the formation of several iron-nitrosyl species. A distinct intermediate was observed at ∼2 NO per cluster, along with two further intermediates at ∼4 and ∼6 NO. The NsrR nitrosylation reaction was not significantly affected by DNA binding. These results show that NsrR regulates different promoters in response to different concentrations of NO. Spectroscopic evidence indicates that this is achieved by different NO-FeS complexes.

Background: NsrR family proteins are [2Fe-2S] or [4Fe-4S] cluster-containing global regulators. Results: Streptomyces coelicolor NsrR regulates only three genes, and it is the [4Fe-4S] form of the protein that binds tightly to NsrR-regulated promoters. Conclusion: [4Fe-4S] NsrR has a specialized function associated only with nitric oxide stress response. Significance: Members of the NsrR family are most likely all [4Fe-4S] proteins., The Rrf2 family transcription factor NsrR controls expression of genes in a wide range of bacteria in response to nitric oxide (NO). The precise form of the NO-sensing module of NsrR is the subject of controversy because NsrR proteins containing either [2Fe-2S] or [4Fe-4S] clusters have been observed previously. Optical, Mössbauer, resonance Raman spectroscopies and native mass spectrometry demonstrate that Streptomyces coelicolor NsrR (ScNsrR), previously reported to contain a [2Fe-2S] cluster, can be isolated containing a [4Fe-4S] cluster. ChIP-seq experiments indicated that the ScNsrR regulon is small, consisting of only hmpA1, hmpA2, and nsrR itself. The hmpA genes encode NO-detoxifying flavohemoglobins, indicating that ScNsrR has a specialized regulatory function focused on NO detoxification and is not a global regulator like some NsrR orthologues. EMSAs and DNase I footprinting showed that the [4Fe-4S] form of ScNsrR binds specifically and tightly to an 11-bp inverted repeat sequence in the promoter regions of the identified target genes and that DNA binding is abolished following reaction with NO. Resonance Raman data were consistent with cluster coordination by three Cys residues and one oxygen-containing residue, and analysis of ScNsrR variants suggested that highly conserved Glu-85 may be the fourth ligand. Finally, we demonstrate that some low molecular weight thiols, but importantly not physiologically relevant thiols, such as cysteine and an analogue of mycothiol, bind weakly to the [4Fe-4S] cluster, and exposure of this bound form to O2 results in cluster conversion to the [2Fe-2S] form, which does not bind to DNA. These data help to account for the observation of [2Fe-2S] forms of NsrR.

Streptomyces bacteria make numerous secondary metabolites, including half of all known antibiotics. Understanding the global regulation of secondary metabolism is important because most Streptomyces natural products are not made under laboratory conditions and unlocking ‘cryptic’ biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) is a major focus for natural product discovery. Production is coordinated with sporulation but the regulators that coordinate development with antibiotic biosynthesis are largely unknown. Here we characterise a highly conserved actinobacterial response regulator called MtrA in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces species. We show that MtrA is an essential global regulator of secondary metabolism that directly activates antibiotic production in in S. coelicolor and S. venezuelae. MtrA also controls key developmental genes required for DNA replication and cell division and we propose that MtrA is the missing link that coordinates secondary metabolism with development in Streptomyces species.

Bacterial lipoproteins are a class of extracellular proteins tethered to cell membranes by covalently attached lipids. Deleting the lipoprotein signal peptidase (lsp) gene in Streptomyces coelicolor results in growth and developmental defects that cannot be restored by reintroducing the lsp. We report resequencing of the genomes of the wild-type M145 and the cis-complemented Δlsp mutant (BJT1004), mapping and identifying secondary mutations, including an insertion into a novel putative small RNA, scr6809. Disruption of scr6809 led to a range of developmental phenotypes. However, these secondary mutations do not increase the efficiency of disrupting lsp suggesting they are not lsp specific suppressors. Instead we suggest that these were induced by introducing the cosmid St4A10Δlsp as part of the Redirect mutagenesis protocol, which transiently duplicates a number of important cell division genes. Disruption of lsp using no gene duplication resulted in the previously observed phenotype. We conclude that lsp is not essential in S. coelicolor but loss of lsp does lead to developmental defects due to the loss of lipoproteins from the cell. Significantly, our results indicate the use of cosmid libraries for the genetic manipulation of bacteria can lead to unexpected phenotypes not necessarily linked to the gene or pathway of interest.

Members of the Rrf2 superfamily of transcription factors are widespread in bacteria but their functions are largely unexplored. The few that have been characterized in detail sense nitric oxide (NsrR), iron limitation (RirA), cysteine availability (CymR) and the iron sulfur (Fe-S) cluster status of the cell (IscR). In this study we combined ChIP- and dRNA-seq with in vitro biochemistry to characterize a putative NsrR homologue in Streptomyces venezuelae. ChIP-seq analysis revealed that rather than regulating the nitrosative stress response like Streptomyces coelicolor NsrR, Sven6563 binds to a conserved motif at a different, much larger set of genes with a diverse range of functions, including a number of regulators, genes required for glutamine synthesis, NADH/NAD(P)H metabolism, as well as general DNA/RNA and amino acid/protein turn over. Our biochemical experiments further show that Sven6563 has a [2Fe-2S] cluster and that the switch between oxidized and reduced cluster controls its DNA binding activity in vitro. To our knowledge, both the sensing domain and the putative target genes are novel for an Rrf2 protein, suggesting Sven6563 represents a new member of the Rrf2 superfamily. Given the redox sensitivity of its Fe-S cluster we have tentatively named the protein RsrR for Redox sensitive response Regulator.

Determining the chemical and structural modifications occurring within a protein during fundamental processes such as ligand or substrate binding is essential to building up a complete picture of biological function. Currently, significant unanswered questions relate to the way in which protein structural dynamics fit within the structure-function relationship and to the functional role, if any, of bound water molecules in the active site. Addressing these questions requires a multidisciplinary approach and complementary experimental techniques that, in combination, enhance our understanding of the complexities of protein chemistry. We exemplify this philosophy by applying both physical and biological approaches to investigate the active site chemistry that contributes to the inhibition of the Corynebacterium glutamicum catalase enzyme by nitric oxide. Ultrafast two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy (2D-IR) experiments exploit the NO ligand as a local probe of the active site molecular environment and shows that catalase displays a dynamically-restricted, 'tight,' structure. X-ray crystallography studies of C. glutamicum catalase confirm the presence of a conserved chain of hydrogen-bonded bound water molecules that link the NO ligand and the protein scaffold. This combination of bound water and restricted dynamics stands in stark contrast to other haem proteins, such as myoglobin, that exhibit ligand transport functionality despite the presence of a similar distal architecture in close proximity to the ligand. We conclude not only that the bound water molecules in the catalase active site play an important role in molecular recognition of NO but also may be part of the mechanistic operation of this important enzyme.

The toxic free radical NO (nitric oxide) has diverse biological roles in eukaryotes and bacteria, being involved in signalling, vasodilation, blood clotting and immunity, and as an intermediate in microbial denitrification. The predominant biological mechanism of detecting NO is through the formation of iron nitrosyl complexes, although this is a deleterious process for other iron-containing enzymes. We have previously applied techniques such as UV–visible and EPR spectroscopy to the analysis of protein Fe–NO complex formation in order to study how NO controls the activity of the bacterial transcriptional regulators NorR and NsrR. These studies have analysed NO-dependent biological activity both in vitro and in vivo using diverse biochemical, molecular and spectroscopic methods. Recently, we have applied ultrafast 2D-IR (two-dimensional IR) spectroscopy to the analysis of NO–protein interactions using Mb (myoglobin) and Cc (cytochrome c) as model haem proteins. The ultrafast fluctuations of Cc and Mb show marked differences, indicating altered flexibility of the haem pockets. We have extended this analysis to bacterial catalase enzymes that are known to play a role in the nitrosative stress response by detoxifying peroxynitrite. The first 2D-IR analysis of haem nitrosylation and perspectives for the future are discussed.