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El objetivo de la investigación fue diseñar una escala permita examinar los valores en el deporte del alumnado de ESO y Bachillerato españoles sobre los valores generados en el ámbito deportivo. La muestra del estudio estuvo formada por 1316 alumnos pertenecientes a quince centros educativos de Enseñanza Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO) y Bachillerato españoles. Se realizó un Análisis Factorial exploratorio (AFE) para comprobar la validez interna del cuestionario y un análisis factorial confirmatorio. Finalmente, el “cuestionario de valores deportivos y olímpicos” es un instrumento con el que se pueden conocer la percepción de los valores asociados al deporte por la población de entre 12 y 18 años. Palabras clave: Educación, Olimpismo, deporte, adolescentes, lengua española Abstract. The aim of the present research was to design a scale that would allow us to examine the sporting values of Spanish middle and high school students associated to the values generated in the sports sphere. The sample was composed of 1316 students from fifteen high school education centers in Spain. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to verify the internal validity of the questionnaire, as well as a confirmatory factory analysis (CFA). Finally, the "questionnaire of sports and Olympic values" is an instrument with which the perception of the values ​​associated with sport by the population between 12 and 18 years of age can be known. Keywords: Education; Olympism; Sport, teenagers, Spanish language.

In high jumping, the horizontal velocity which jumpers aim to reach by the end of the run-up must be the maximum that they can control, enabling them to clear the greatest height possible. Furtherm...

Sport is historically designated by the binary categorization of male and female that conflicts with modern society. Sport’s governing bodies should consider reviewing rules determining the eligibility of athletes in the female category as there may be lasting advantages of previously high testosterone concentrations for transwomen athletes and currently high testosterone concentrations in differences in sex development (DSD) athletes. The use of serum testosterone concentrations to regulate the inclusion of such athletes into the elite female category is currently the objective biomarker that is supported by most available scientific literature, but it has limitations due to the lack of sports performance data before, during or after testosterone suppression. Innovative research studies are needed to identify other biomarkers of testosterone sensitivity/responsiveness, including molecular tools to determine the functional status of androgen receptors. The scientific community also needs to conduct longitudinal studies with specific control groups to generate the biological and sports performance data for individual sports to inform the fair inclusion or exclusion of these athletes. Eligibility of each athlete to a sport-specific policy needs to be based on peer-reviewed scientific evidence made available to policymakers from all scientific communities. However, even the most evidence-based regulations are unlikely to eliminate all differences in performance between cisgender women with and without DSD and transwomen athletes. Any remaining advantage held by transwomen or DSD women could be considered as part of the athlete’s unique makeup.

Summary Objective To determine the muscle architecture adaptations in the vastus lateralis (VL) and vastus medialis (VM) after an eccentric training programme based on the Reverse Nordic Hamstring Exercise (RNHE) and after a subsequent detraining period. Subjects and methods The participants (N = 28) underwent a 12-week intervention, consisting of one week of assessment and familiarisation, followed by seven weeks of eccentric training and four weeks of detraining. The VL and VM muscle architecture features were assessed in resting conditions by means of 2D ultrasonography before (week 1) and after (week 8) the training period, as well as after the detraining period (week 12). Results Significant increases in the VL and VM muscle fascicle length (FL) (t = − 5.06, d = 1.43, P Conclusion The FL, MT and PA showed a significant decrease after the detraining period. The results provide evidence that an eccentric training programme based on the RNHE may lead to changes in the VL and VM muscle architecture features, which are reversible after a four-week detraining period.

The aim was to determine the pacing strategies used to achieve male 1500 m running world record performances. Lap times (three first laps and the last 300 m) for the last 37 male 1500 m world record performances achieved since 1917 until 1998 were collected. An analysis of variance with repeated measures and a Bonferroni post hoc test were conducted to determine differences between the percentages of race average speed at each lap. Lap 1 and last 300 m differed from lap 2 and 3, being the latter slower (

El objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar los factores socio-demográficos, económicos y deportivos relacionados con los resultados de participación del equipo olímpico español en los JJ.OO. de Pekín 2008, Londres 2012 y Rio de Janeiro 2016, analizando si el sexo del deportista provoca variaciones en el modelo. Se obtuvieron datos de 875 deportistas olímpicos pertenecientes al equipo español entre los años 2005 y 2016, así como de diferentes parámetros socio-demográficos, económicos, y deportivos. Se realizó un análisis de componentes principales que mostró que la población, el presupuesto deportivo, las licencias deportivas, los deportistas de alto nivel (DAN), los deportistas becados, la brecha de género y el PIB explicaban un 79,81% de la varianza total. Al realizar el modelo en función del sexo se encontró un modelo similar al general en mujeres y hombres. En conclusión, la participación de hombres y mujeres en el olimpismo español se debe a una gran amalgama de variables, no existiendo grandes diferencias en la influencia de las mismas en función sexo. Abstract. The aim of this study was to analyze the socio-demographic, economic and sports factors related to the results of the Spanish Olympic team's participation in the Olympic Games of Beijing 2008, London 2012 and Rio de Janeiro 2016, analyzing whether the sex of the athlete causes variations in the model. Data was obtained from 875 Olympic athletes belonging to the Spanish team between 2005 and 2016, as well as from different socio-demographic, economic and sports parameters. A main component analysis was carried out which showed that the population, sports budget, sports licenses, top level athletes (TLA), scholarship awarded athletes, gender gap and GDP explained 79.81% of the total variance. When the gender model was carried out, a similar pattern to the general one was found in women and men. In conclusion, the participation of men and women in the Spanish Olympics is due to a great amalgam of variables, and there are no great differences in the influence of these variables according to gender.

The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of the Hold-Relax stretching technique without (HR) and with electrostimulation (HR+EE) on the improvement and retention of active movement range (AROM) and passive (PROM) of hip in flexion, and the perception of pain during its application. 42 athletes were assigned to three groups: control, HR+EE and HR. The range of motion of the hip flexion was measured by test straight-leg-rise before, once completed and after 2 weeks of completion the training. Pain assessment was performed in all sessions with the EVA scale. The ANOVA showed a very significant increase in PROM (p

In this article, we scrutinize views that justify exclusionary policies regarding transgender athletes based primarily on physiological criteria. We introduce and examine some elements that deserve...

This study analyzes the strategy used by the best male runners who participated in one of the major city marathons (Frankfurt Marathon, 2008-2018), the all-time performances

espanolLos/as deportistas de elite utilizan las diferentes redes sociales como herramienta para conectar con sus publicos. Esta investigacion analiza el uso de Instagram por parte de los deportistas espanoles que han recibido algun “Premio Nacional del Deporte” en los ultimos cinco anos, con el objetivo de valorar su eficacia como mecanismo para generar interaccion y favorecer las relaciones con los publicos. La tecnica metodologica empleada es el analisis del contenido, para averiguar las caracteristicas de las publicaciones que reciben una mayor interaccion por parte de sus seguidores. Los resultados muestran que, en general, esta red social se revela como una herramienta eficaz para los deportistas de elite a la hora de generar visibilidad e interaccion entre sus publicos EnglishSocial networks are a fundamental tool that organizations use for promotional, informative and relational purposes. From this last point of view, social networks allow organizations to gain visibility and generate interaction with audiences, thus contributing to maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with them. In the sports field, as in others, the use of social networks is widespread not only by sports clubs or entities, but also by individual athletes. Instagram in particular is one of the networks that has experienced the greatest growth in recent years and that is why, from the international academic field, attention has been paid to the use of this network in the sports field.Based on this approach, this research analyzes the use of Instagram by Spanish athletes of recognized prestige, with the aim of evaluating its effectiveness as a mechanism to generate interaction and promote relations with the public. From this perspective, questions such as the effectiveness of Instagram to generate visibility or the influence of various elements, such as the type of post or the complementary resources used in the text, in the generation or increase of interaction are raised.The study focuses on a sample of 17 Spanish adult athletes who received a “Premio Nacional del Deporte” (Rey Felipe, Reina Letizia, Rey Juan Carlos and Reina Sofia) between 2013 and 2017. For each of the selected athletes a compilation of all their Instagram posts for the year 2018, using the Instagram Scraper tool, was made and an analysis of emission and reception was carried out. Regarding the emission, aspects such as the number of published posts, the type of post (image or video) and the use of resources such as hashtags, mentions and emoticons were taken into account, while from the point of view of reception they were collected data of number of followers, likes and comments.The results show a high diversity both in the number of published posts, which range between 39 and 348 entries per year, and in the number of followers, which varies notably depending on the notoriety of the athlete, from the little more from 16,000 by Ruth Beithia to over 27 million Andres Iniesta. There is a majority preference for the use of images (82% of posts) compared to the use of videos, although the use of complementary resources such as hashtags, mentions and emoticons is highly variable depending on the athlete and does not seem to significantly influence in generating interaction. It is also verified that the members of the sample are not very active in following other accounts, since the number of followers is barely over 1,200 at best. The total of the publications accumulates almost 230 million likes and more than a million and a half comments, although the difference in results per athlete in these indicators is highly variable. In general terms, more followers generate more likes and more comments, although this increase is not proportional and no significant increase in interaction is generated from very high numbers of followers.These results corroborate the interest of Instagram as a network with high capacity to generate visibility and interaction with audiences, although the popularity of the athlete influences, in the first place, the number of followers and, therefore, the possibilities of interaction.

Academic success in adolescence is a strong predictor of well-being and health in adulthood. A healthy lifestyle and moderate/high levels of physical activity can influence academic performance. Therefore, we aimed to assess the relationship between the physical activity levels and body image and academic performance in public school adolescents. The sample consisted of 531 secondary school students in Porto (296 girls and 235 boys) aged between 15 and 20 years. The study variables and instruments were satisfaction with body image (The Body Image Rating Scale), assessment of physical activity (International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (IPAQ-A), assessment of academic performance (academic achievement), school motivation (Academic Scale Motivation). The statistical analysis performed was descriptive analysis, an analysis of covariance, and a logistic regression. Regarding the results obtained, although there was no association between physical activity level and academic performance, it was observed in 10th grade students that the school average was higher for those practicing group or individual sports compared to students practicing artistic expression. Regarding the level of satisfaction with body image, we found different results in both genders. Our results support the importance of an active lifestyle, with the presence of regular physical activity being an important factor in improving academic performance.

Objective Analyze the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and its subsequent confinement on Olympic and Paralympic level athletes’ behaviors, perception of threat, stress, state of mind and training patterns.Methods All variables were modulated by gender, academic training, and sport discipline on a population composed of 447 Olympic (25.97 ± 7.46 years) and 64 Paralympic athletes (28.44 ± 10.50 years).Results Most of the athletes recognize that their best athletic performance diminished due to the COVID-19 confinement but that will recover after the pandemic and its confinements. Almost half of the athletes declared they were more tired than normal and had difficulty sleeping, while more than half eat more or less as usual. Paralympic athletes report they felt more capable to cope with personal problems and feeling more frequently that life events where going well and less lonely during the confinement than the Olympians. The athletes from team sports disrupted their training routine more significantly than athletes of individual sports, seeing their athletic performance more affected. Athletes in individual sports felt more capable to cope with personal problems than athletes in team sports. Female athletes were significantly more tired and reported more difficulty sleeping than male.Conclusions The situation caused by COVID-19 has had significant effects on the behavior, perception of threat, stress and training patterns of Olympic and Paralympic athletes facing the 2020 Tokyo Olympiad. It is necessary that sports institutions to reinforce mechanisms of help to athletes during future situations of confinement.

The aim of this study has been to analyse the perception of the Olympic values shown by coaches of different levels and categories in Portugal related to the type of sport they train (individual or collective). The study sample consisted of 1473 Portuguese coaches (214 female and 1259 male) from 34 different sports modalities (individual and collective). The data collection instrument was a three-dimensional questionnaire (perception of the Olympic Symbols, opinion about participation in the Olympic Games and values related to the Olympic Games). Descriptive analysis showed differences between the opinions of individual and team sports coaches in the three dimensions. The inferential analysis only showed significant differences in the dimension of opinion about participation in the Olympic games. These results reveal the difference in the perception of the Olympic values between coaches of individual sports and those of team sports.

The literature contains several researches seeking to analyse and predict the behaviour of 100-meter dash performance through different mathematical models. Although when analysing the historical records in their entirety these simple models fit largely to their behaviour of the historical series, these approximations are not valid when the focus is on the analysis of accumulated times over the past 2 decades. For this reason, this work proposes new alternatives such as polynomial gradient or smooth models capable of explaining with greater accuracy what has happened during the last 20 years for this modality. Therefore, in order to analyse the distribution of competitive marks relative to the top five and bottom five in the ranking over a period of 20 seasons, a total amount of 428 records corresponding to themarks obtained by international level male athletes who conformed the IAAF world ranking in the 100 m race during the 20 indicated seasons were considered for this goal. The main findings of this research conclude with the lack of fitting between the simple approaches (linear or exponential models) and the reported decline in the records -therefore better performance-throughout the analysed period. In return, this work reveals the existence of a tendency towards overall reduction of time records, denotinga positive evolution of the "competitive health" of the discipline. These evolutions, however, seem to be influenced by the position in which athletes qualify, thus showing greater reductions for athletes classified in the bottom five than for those classified in the top five.

Acrobatic gymnastics is associated with injury risk. The aim of the study was to gain knowledge on injury incidence, type and severity in acrobatic gymnasts of both sexes. An epidemiologic, descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted involving 54 gymnasts: 23 males and 31 females aged 14 to 23. The training characteristics (training time: days and hours), as well as the injuries suffered (site, type, severity and moment of injury) were assessed. A total of 89 injuries were recorded. Injury incidence was 9.85/1,000 h of exposure among women and 9.15 among men. The highest percentage of injuries was located in the lower limb, with no significant differences based on sex. Ligament injuries were the most common among women, while tendonitis prevailed among men. The majority of injuries occurred while performing group skills in the technical part of the session (27% during dynamic and 23.6% during static skills), bases suffered a greater number of injuries than tops. It was concluded that muscle and ligament injuries were the most common injury types, the lower limb the most frequently affected body region and moderate the most frequent severity level in both sexes. The variables sex and role were associated with injury incidence.

Recently, the so-called Semenya case has brought the problem of gender in sports competitions back into the spotlight. But the fact is that it is not a unique case; rather, it seems a recurrent and inconclusive problem in the history of sports. In this context, the Spanish athlete Martínez-Patiño is an important figure in the history of sport and gender verification, as well as the Indian sprinter Dutee Chand. Martínez-Patiño’s story thus serves as an important case study of the gender-based anxieties that hampered women’s advancement in track and field. Martínez-Patiño’s experience in Spanish athletics demonstrates the difficulties women faced when attempting to compete in track and field, both in Spain and internationally. Moreover, her experience with gender policies shows the inadequacies of the chromosomal check as a sex marker, as well as the harms caused by the technique. Finally, Martínez-Patiño’s protest of the International Association of Athletics Federations’ policy started to dismantle compulsory sex verification used as a criterion for gender eligibility. The publicity surrounding her case pushed the track and field federation to abandon mandatory, on-site testing in 1992. Seven years later, the International Olympic Committee also dropped its compulsory control. Martínez-Patiño became the face of the fight against sex/gender verification in sport and helped dismantle the practice. The case of Martinez-Patiño remains in the collective memory of elite sports and serves as an argument for national and international sporting institutions to reconsider discriminating policies in the context of progress being made for women’s rights. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científcas (CSIC) (PID2019-105428RB-I00) “Hybrid epistemologies: bodies, biometrics and assemblies” and CNRS laboratory IRL 2006 “Epigenetics, Data, Politics.” 4.507 JCR (2020) Q1, 25/130 Psychology, Clinical 1.288 SJR (2020) Q1, 39/475 Arts and Humanities (miscellaneous) No data IDR 2020 UEM

The outbreak of COVID-19 has triggered a pandemic, jeopardizing global health. The sports world is also suffering enormous consequences, such as the suspension of the Olympic Games in Tokyo or, in chess, the cancelation of the World Candidates Tournament 2020. Chess is a sport characterized by high psychophysiological demands derived from long training durations, tournaments, and games, leading to mental, emotional, and physical stress. These characteristics could provide chess players a certain advantage in facing quarantine situations. This study aimed to analyze the effect of COVID-19 confinement on behavioral, psychological, and training patterns of chess players based on their gender, level of education, and level of chess played. We analyzed chess players (N: 450; age = 38.12 ± 14.01 years) in countries where confinement was mandatory: Professional players (N: 55; age = 43.35 ± 13), high-performance players (N: 53; age = 38.57 ± 13.46), competitive players (N: 284; age = 36.82 ± 13.91), and amateur players (N: 58; age = 39.10 ± 14.99). Results showed that chess players significantly decreased physical activity per day while increased chess practise during the confinement period. However, anxiety levels remained moderate despite the anti-stress effects of physical activity. Amateur players showed a significantly higher level of social alarm than professional and high-performance players. Moreover, professional players showed higher values of extraversion than high-performance players and amateur players. In neuroticism, professional players showed higher values than high-performance players. In addition, the professional players showed higher scores in psychological inflexibility than competitive players. Finally, chess players with the highest academic level showed higher levels of personal concern and anxiety due to COVID-19 as well as lower psychological inflexibility compared to those with a lower academic level. In conclusion, chess players, especially those with a higher academic level, might have adapted their psychological profile to fit confinement situations and the worrying levels of physical inactivity. Sin financiación 2.990 JCR (2020) Q2, 42/140 Psychology, Multidisciplinary 0.947 SJR (2020) Q2, 68/263 Psychology (miscellaneous) No data IDR 2019 UEM

The aim of this study is to analyse frontal and lateral displacements, as well as free segment actions in a sample of 10 athletes (7 in national categories and 3 at an international level) in order...

This paper estimates the technical efficiency of Olympic disciplines in which Spanish athletes participate, taking into account the results obtained in the last three Olympic Games. A stochastic production frontier model (normal-exponential), using two control variables linked to economic factors such as budget and sports scholarships, is estimated in order to obtain different Olympic sports’ efficiencies distinguished by gender, using data from 2005 to 2016. The results detect some differences among the considered disciplines. In all the cases, athletics, canoeing, cycling, swimming, and tennis, depending on the gender, reach better values. This paper’s novelty lies in the efficiency analysis carried out on the Olympic disciplines and athletes of a country and not on the country’s efficiency, which allows managers and stakeholders to decide about investments concerning disciplines and athletes. Ministerio Ciencia e Innovación | Ref. PID2019-105428RB-I00 Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad | Ref. ECO2017-85577-P

As the world feels the impact of the coronavirus, the role of sport and philanthropy has merged as a venue for generating social impact and providing relief to those in need. This research focuses on the social responsibility and philanthropic mobilization of professional athletes to address urgent social needs during the COVID-19 crisis. In particular, the study focuses on the role that social media plays in the communication of these socially responsible activities developed by professional athletes. This study examined how the various ways that athletes are giving back and the messaging strategies related to the impact of COVID-19. By doing that, the authors identified three key areas: Awareness Raising and Advocacy; Calls to Action and Engagement; Information Sharing and Communication. Other relevant insights into philanthropic and social responsibility strategies and approaches were identified (e.g., direct giving, fundraising, awareness raising, mobilizing networks, or information sharing). The paper also discusses the potential responses and outcomes garnered by communicating these efforts and offers insights into how professional athletes can maximize their social impact around the world during crisis during crises such as the COVID-19.

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el efecto de la técnica de estiramiento Contract-Relax Agonist Contract con (CRAC+EE) y sin (CRAC) electroestimulación sobre la mejora y retención del rango de movimiento activo (AROM) y pasivo (PROM) de cadera en flexión, en extremidad inferior dominante. 34 estudiantes universitarios fueron asignados a tres grupos: control, CRAC+EE y CRAC. AROM y PROM fueron evaluados antes, una vez finalizada y tras dos semanas de la finalización del entrenamiento. El entrenamiento tuvo una duración de cuatro semanas, a razón de tres sesiones semanales. El ANOVA mostró un aumento muy significativo de AROM (p, The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of the Contract-Relax Agonist Contract stretching technique with (CRAC+EE) and without (CRAC) electrostimulation on the improvement and retention of active movement range (AROM) and passive (PROM) of hip in flexion, in dominant lower extremity. 34 university students were assigned to three groups: control, CRAC+EE and CRAC. AROM and PROM were evaluated before, once completed and after 2 weeks of completion the training. The training lasted 4 weeks, with 3 sessions per week.The ANOVA showed a very significant increase in AROM (p

Background Numerous studies have reported a gradual decline in the practice of physical exercise with age, confirming high dropout rates in the adolescent period. The aim of this study was to investigate the motivation or barriers that lead to greater or lesser adherence to physical exercise among children and adolescents. Methods In this study, 1,081 individuals volunteered to participate [239 children (age: 10.89 ± .66 years) and 842 adolescents (age: 14.9 ± 1.75 years)]. For this purpose, we used the Self-Report on Motivation for Exercising (AMPEF) and Self-Report on Barriers to Exercising (ABPEF) questionnaires. Results The most significant motivational factors in the practice of physical exercise (in both children and adolescents) are competition, social recognition and challenge (t = -16.02, p < .001), prevention and positive health (t = 5.24, p < .001) and affiliation, fun and well-being (t = -19.54, p < .001), while the barriers focus on fatigue and laziness (t = -13.20, p < .001) and body image and physical-social anxiety (t = -5.71, p < .001). It is also observed that adolescents showed significantly higher motivation than children and greater presence of barriers in the practice of physical exercise. Conclusions The age is a determining variable to include in preventive and intervention programs for the practice of physical exercise.

A Carta Olímpica (CA) assinala a missão Movimento Olímpico (MO) no sentido de construir um mundo melhor. Através dos valores associados à busca de excelência, celebração da amizade e demonstração de respeito, a prática desportiva emerge como uma ferramenta de educação de elevado interesse. Enquanto agentes com intervenção particular, isto é, a responsabilidade na condução e ensino da atividade desportiva, os treinadores são elementos cruciais no processo de desenvolvimento dos valores que se querem manifestados através da prática desportiva Não obstante e sabendo que a nível da formação existe um modulo de ética, queremos saber ate que ponto os nossos treinadores estão sensibilizados para a temática da Ética, Olimpismo e dos Valores. Este estudo teve por base a aplicação de questionários aos treinadores, e pretende se saber se os treinadores transmitem os valores aos seus atletas e em que situação, saber que conhecimentos tem sobre o movimento olímpico e quais os valores desportivos tem na sua formação como treinadores. Resumen. La Carta Olímpica (CA) señala la misión Movimiento Olímpico (MO) para construir un mundo mejor. A través de los valores asociados a la búsqueda de la excelencia, la amistad y la celebración muestra de respeto, el deporte surge como una herramienta educativa de gran interés. Mientras que los agentes con intervención particular, es decir, la responsabilidad en la conducción y la enseñanza en los deportes, los entrenadores son elementos cruciales en el proceso de desarrollo de los valores que se quieren manifestar a través del deporte Sin embargo, y sabiendo que en la formación hay un módulo la ética, queremos saber en qué medida nuestros entrenadores son conscientes del problema de la ética, el Olimpismo y sus valores. Este estudio se basó en cuestionarios dirigidos a los entrenadores, y quieren saber si los entrenadores transmiten valores a sus atletas y en esa situación, sabe que el conocimiento tiene sobre el movimiento olímpico y el que figuras del deporte tienen en su formación como entrenadores.

El objetivo del presente trabajo es analizar qué valores asocian los adolescentes a la práctica deportiva con especial énfasis en los que caracterizan al Movimiento Olímpico. Para ello se ha elaborado un cuestionario ad-hoc en el que se ha preguntado a jóvenes de entre 12 y 18 años por 30 cualidades que, tanto en la bibliografía como en la sociedad, se relacionan comúnmente con el deporte. Dado que el fútbol es el deporte mayoritariamente practicado (como también se refleja en nuestro trabajo) y de mayor impacto social y mediático, hemos centrado el análisis en la percepción de los valores olímpicos de sus practicantes. Así, el valor más importante asociado a la práctica deportiva es la diversión. Además, los cuatro Valores Olímpicos consensuados en la bibliografía: esfuerzo, juego limpio, amistad y respeto; aparecen situados entre las seis primeras posiciones por orden de valoración. De los facilitados en el cuestionario, los valores negativos como “machacar al rival” son los menos valorados. Sin embargo, los futbolistas puntúan significativamente más alto que la media las variables negativas. Por género, los chicos futbolistas también puntúan significativamente más alto que las chicas cualidades negativas como las asociadas a la competitividad. Los futbolistas dan más valor a cualidades relacionadas con el equipo frente a los practicantes de artes marciales que valoran en mayor medida cualidades personales. Abstract. The aim of this paper is to analyze what values associated teens with sport with special emphasis on those that characterize the Olympic Movement. To do that, we have developed an ad-hoc questionnaire in which we asked young people, between 12 and 18 years, for 30 qualities that commonly associate with the sport. Since football is the sport mostly practiced (as is also reflected in our work) and with the greater social and media impact, we have focused the analysis on the perception of the Olympic values of the football players. Thus, the most important value associated with the sport is: fun. In addition, the four Olympic Values consensus in the literature: effort, fair play, friendship and respect; they appear positioned between the six top positions, in order of valuation. Of those provided in the questionnaire, negative values as "crush rival" are the least valued. However, football players scored significantly higher than average negative variables. By gender, the boys football players also scored significantly higher than girls negative values associated with competitiveness. The football players give greater importance to team-related values compared to martial arts practitioners who emphasize personal values further.

One of the most contentious issues in modern day sport arises when sports are divided into male and female categories. The International Association of Athletics Federations' (IAAF) previous policy regulating intersex athletes was suspended by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), resulting in a new policy. The challenge faced by the governing body of athletics is to formulate a policy that upholds both international law and the Olympic charter that stipulates athletes compete without discrimination of any kind. Implementation of the policy has been delayed until after a verdict, expected no later than March 26, 2019, in the Semenya versus IAAF trial in the Court of Arbitration for Sport. If the policy is enacted, it will restrict athletes from competing in the female athletics category with specific differences of sex development (DSD) in races from 400 m up to the mile in international level competitions unless they lower their natural testosterone (T) levels below 5 nmol·L. To thoroughly assess this new IAAF policy, one needs to appreciate its legal, sociological, and scientific underpinnings but also the history of previous policies attempting to define precisely how athletes should be divided into male and female categories. We previously proposed a system to deal with gender variant athletes that relied on a determination of an "athlete/athletic gender." The concept of "athlete gender" was presented to multiple audiences, and the resulting survey is included. A large majority of participants (71% of 153) who answered the survey agreed with the idea of an athlete gender. This position also was accompanied by the request for more studies (20% of those who agreed) and concern over the process of hormone monitoring (32% of those who agreed) to avoid doping misuse. The primary argument of those participating in the survey that disagreed with the position (23% of 153) was that biological differences between males and females remained even after the transition (47% of opposing comments). Mixed gender/sex competitions provide unique opportunities for athletes to compete against one another outside of the traditional male/female divide and pave the way for a more flexible approach for dealing with gender variant athletes.

Summarization: The purpose of this study was to examine whether the difference in elite-standard track and field performance between women athletes with and without hyperandrogenism reaches the 10–12% difference in performance between men and women, using only results from elite-standard track and field final competitions. Officially available data from two hyperandrogenic women (Caster Semenya and Dutee Chand) were compared with the characteristic performance of 200m and 800m elite-standard finals. The finishing times of Caster Semenya, before her ineligibility to compete in 2009 and after the suspension of the 2011 IAAF Hyperandrogenism Regulations were found to be respectively 1.24% and 1.49% faster than the predicted performance in 800m finals. When compared with the result of the second classified, the difference was respectively 0.65% and 2.08%. The analysis of the finishing times of Dutee Chand did not lead to any conclusions due to the lack of available data. The present study indicates that the percentage difference in performance between women with and women without hyperandrogenism does not reach the 3% difference requested by the Court of Arbitration for Sport for the reinstatement of the Hyperandrogenism Regulations, neither does it reach the 10% accepted range of difference in performance between men and women. Παρουσιάστηκε στο: Journal of Sports Sciences

In November 2015, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) reached a consensus on “Sex Reassignment and Hyperandrogenism” allowing transgender athletes to compete after one year of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and without sex reassignment surgery (SRS). These recommendations have been applauded by some who argue that these guidelines are supported by the limited scientific data and are in line with current social and legal recognition on transgender issues. There are however, many who oppose allowing transgender women to compete against cisgender women under any conditions, especially in those cases where gonadectomy has not been performed. While much of this opposition is based on a lack of understanding of the transformative nature of HRT, there are also those who have legitimate concerns over the paucity of scientific studies to support the new IOC guidelines.

This chapter analyzes transgender participation in elite competition sports with special emphasis on Male-To-Female who have hormonally transitioned. Social and legal discrimination of transgender individuals and the legal restrictions on the recognition of the change of sex prevented any transgender athlete from being eligible by sports authorities for a sexual category that was not congruent with the biological one. The underlying goal of sex-segregated competition is purportedly to establish a fair competition given that alternative of a competition without sex segregation would put women at a disadvantage. Sex categorization, from a medical perspective, is simultaneously ideological in that there are vast differences between members of one sex; in that there exists a mean average difference between males and females. The shift, from a medical perspective, with search for genetic diagnosis to a sports-related perspective for the best biological marker eventually lead to the end of gender verification policies.

Between 1968 and 1999, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) required all female athletes to undergo genetic testing as part of its sex verification policy, under the assumption that it needed to prevent men from impersonating women and competing in female-only events. After critics convinced officials that genetic testing was scientifically and ethically flawed for this purpose, the IOC replaced the policy in 1999 with a system allowing for medical evaluations of an athlete's sex only in cases of "reasonable suspicion," but this system also created injustice for athletes and stoked international controversies. In 2011, the IOC adopted a new policy on female hyperandrogenism, which established an upper hormonal limit for athletes eligible to compete in women's sporting events. This new policy, however, still leaves important medical and ethical issues unaddressed. We review the history of sex verification policies and make specific recommendations on ways to improve justice for athletes within the bounds of the current hyperandrogenism policy, including suggestions to clarify the purpose of the policy, to ensure privacy and confidentiality, to gain informed consent, to promote psychological health, and to deploy equitable administration and eligibility standards for male and female athletes.

In April 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF) updated their regulations regarding female elite athletes with hyperandrogenism: Females whose testosterone levels crossed into the male range could not compete with other females unless it is shown that they are resistant to the effects of testosterone. Although the new rule is a marked improvement over past attempts to ensure that males were not trying to compete as women in elite competition, there have been several criticisms leveled against the new regulations. Here we offer our reactions to claims that the new regulation promotes a sex-verification test, claims that intersex athletes will automatically be disqualified from competition, and proposals to either divide athletes based on variables beyond sex or completely eliminate sex groupings. Although elite sports can never achieve a perfect, level playing-field, there should be parameters within which athletes must adhere for a given sport. Yet, elite athletes themselves should play a decisive role in what is best for their sport.

Martinez-Patino MJ, Mateos-Padorno C, Martinez-Vidal A, Sanchez AM, Garcia JL, Diaz MP, Tourino CF. An approach to the biological, historical and psychological repercussions of gender verification in top level competitions. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 307-321, 2010. Different kinds of disorders of sex development (DSD) have been observed in athletes from different countries along the history of sport. The detection of an abnormal chromosomal pattern or gonadal dysgenesis has been always associated to the gender verification tests which international sports institutions have performed from 1960s and abandoned as systematic practice in 2000. Such methods have been heavily criticized by specialists of different fields such as genetics, endocrinologists and psychologists. The use of a femininity control at the present days to detect possible males who fraudulently pretend to compete in female only events is inconsistent. The possible decision of the International Olympic Committee to establish special centers to manage future DSD cases is also discussed. A major concern on the confidentiality between doctors and patients and the establishment of care protocols for the psychological support of athletes in such delicate situations is needed. This ties altogether with the psychological and social repercussions of the gender verification on the lives of athletes with DSD. When cases of sex ambiguities are detected, issues such as the respect of privacy, the need of specific protocols to follow with flexible and diversified tests considering the particularity of each case as well as the psychological support of the athletes and their family have to be taken into account. Although health tests are needed for both men and women, DSD athletes should not be discriminated for their genetic pattern and they should be allowed to compete as it occurs with other athletes with genetic affections which do not involve the sex and that give them a phenotypical advantage over other athletes. Key words: GENDER TEST, DISORDERS SEX DEVELOPMENT (DSD), GENDER VERIFICATION, SPORT, FEMALE

The International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) and the International Olympics Committee (IOC) propose that their new policies for women with high levels of testosterone, known as hype...

A clinical pathology characterized by disturbances in eating behaviour has been often associated to socio-cultural factors that influence the psychopathology of these disorders. The alarming increase in the number of teenagers with eating disorders underscores the need to promote research on the underlying causes, and to identify high-risk subpopulations in need of effective targeted treatment. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of eating disorders among an adolescent population of both sexes on the island of Gran Canaria. The sample was composed of adolescent boys and girls aged 12 to 17 years old (N=1364) who resided in different municipalities of Gran Canaria. The EAT-40 questionnaire was administered (cut-off point at 30), and body mass index measurements were assessed. The mean BMI for the 1364 subjects was 21.8 Kg/m2; 15% were underweight, and of these at least 1% obtained BMI values below 15 Kg/m2. Thus, 13.4% of adolescents were potentially at risk of eating disorders according to the EAT-40 questionnaire. Moreover, the BMI was not significantly correlated to the EAT-40 and was not considered a sufficient parameter to establish the incidence of eating disorders.

This research analyzes different aspects related to the sociological context of Spanish sportsmen and sportswomen, specifically the sociological context of athletics, in a time when women practically compete in the same events than men, and sports are accessible and desirable for them. A questionnaire was carried out among the athletes to obtain information about the social aspects, the preferences and the degree of satisfaction of their condition as athletes on one hand, and the presence or the feelings about different treatment between the two sexes on the other. The data have been then analyzed statistically as a fundamental tool of the methodology used in this survey. The study confirms that women have succeeded in establishing a position of equality with men for number of participants at high competitions and for the level of performance.

This article will evolve around the subject of female integration and participation in athletics in the Olympic Games, analyzing the initial difficulties they encountered, the role played by sports institutions as well as international federations and the Olympic International Committee.