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Supplemental Figure 1. Kinome selectivity profiles for BDP8900 and BDP9066. Supplemental Figure 2. Cancer cell line sensitivity to BDP8900 and BDP9066. Supplemental Figure 3. MRCKα phosphorylations compared with MRCKβ. Supplemental Figure 4. MRCKα, MRCKβ and MRCKα pS1003 antibody validation. Supplemental Figure 5. MRCK and DMPK expression in MDA MB 231 D3H2 LN human breast cancer cells, SCC12 human squamous cell carcinoma cells, and human skeletal muscle. Supplemental Table 1. Crystallographic data and model statistics. Supplemental Table 2: BDP8900 and BDP9066 selectivity in vitro (in-house determinations). Supplemental Table 3. Kinase selectivity screen for BDP8900 and BDP9066. Supplemental Table 4. BDP8900 selectivity in vitro (out-sourced determinations). Supplemental Table 5. BDP9066 selectivity in vitro (out-sourced determinations). Supplemental Table 6. Cancer cell line EC50 values for BDP8900 and BDP9066. Supplemental Table 7. MRCKα phosphorylation sites. Supplemental Table 8. MRCKα phosphorylation on S1003.

Supplementary Tables from Preclinical Antitumor Activity of the Orally Available Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor NVP-BEP800

The myotonic dystrophy–related Cdc42-binding kinases MRCKα and MRCKβ contribute to the regulation of actin–myosin cytoskeleton organization and dynamics, acting in concert with the Rho-associated coiled-coil kinases ROCK1 and ROCK2. The absence of highly potent and selective MRCK inhibitors has resulted in relatively little knowledge of the potential roles of these kinases in cancer. Here, we report the discovery of the azaindole compounds BDP8900 and BDP9066 as potent and selective MRCK inhibitors that reduce substrate phosphorylation, leading to morphologic changes in cancer cells along with inhibition of their motility and invasive character. In over 750 human cancer cell lines tested, BDP8900 and BDP9066 displayed consistent antiproliferative effects with greatest activity in hematologic cancer cells. Mass spectrometry identified MRCKα S1003 as an autophosphorylation site, enabling development of a phosphorylation-sensitive antibody tool to report on MRCKα status in tumor specimens. In a two-stage chemical carcinogenesis model of murine squamous cell carcinoma, topical treatments reduced MRCKα S1003 autophosphorylation and skin papilloma outgrowth. In parallel work, we validated a phospho-selective antibody with the capability to monitor drug pharmacodynamics. Taken together, our findings establish an important oncogenic role for MRCK in cancer, and they offer an initial preclinical proof of concept for MRCK inhibition as a valid therapeutic strategy.Significance: The development of selective small-molecule inhibitors of the Cdc42-binding MRCK kinases reveals their essential roles in cancer cell viability, migration, and invasive character. Cancer Res; 78(8); 2096–114. ©2018 AACR.

We describe the biological properties of NVP-AUY922, a novel resorcinylic isoxazole amide heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitor. NVP-AUY922 potently inhibits HSP90 (Kd = 1.7 nmol/L) and proliferation of human tumor cells with GI50 values of approximately 2 to 40 nmol/L, inducing G1-G2 arrest and apoptosis. Activity is independent of NQO1/DT-diaphorase, maintained in drug-resistant cells and under hypoxic conditions. The molecular signature of HSP90 inhibition, comprising induced HSP72 and depleted client proteins, was readily demonstrable. NVP-AUY922 was glucuronidated less than previously described isoxazoles, yielding higher drug levels in human cancer cells and xenografts. Daily dosing of NVP-AUY922 (50 mg/kg i.p. or i.v.) to athymic mice generated peak tumor levels at least 100-fold above cellular GI50. This produced statistically significant growth inhibition and/or regressions in human tumor xenografts with diverse oncogenic profiles: BT474 breast tumor treated/control, 21%; A2780 ovarian, 11%; U87MG glioblastoma, 7%; PC3 prostate, 37%; and WM266.4 melanoma, 31%. Therapeutic effects were concordant with changes in pharmacodynamic markers, including induction of HSP72 and depletion of ERBB2, CRAF, cyclin-dependent kinase 4, phospho-AKT/total AKT, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, determined by Western blot, electrochemiluminescent immunoassay, or immunohistochemistry. NVP-AUY922 also significantly inhibited tumor cell chemotaxis/invasion in vitro, WM266.4 melanoma lung metastases, and lymphatic metastases from orthotopically implanted PC3LN3 prostate carcinoma. NVP-AUY922 inhibited proliferation, chemomigration, and tubular differentiation of human endothelial cells and antiangiogenic activity was reflected in reduced microvessel density in tumor xenografts. Collectively, the data show that NVP-AUY922 is a potent, novel inhibitor of HSP90, acting via several processes (cytostasis, apoptosis, invasion, and angiogenesis) to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. NVP-AUY922 has entered phase I clinical trials. [Cancer Res 2008;68(8):2850–60]

Supplementary Figure 6 from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 3A-B from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 5A-B from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 4C-D from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 5C-D from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 2 from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figures 1A-B from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 1C from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

Supplementary Figure 4A-B from NVP-AUY922: A Novel Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibitor Active against Xenograft Tumor Growth, Angiogenesis, and Metastasis

PRMT5 and its substrate adaptor proteins (SAPs), pICln and Riok1, are synthetic lethal dependencies in MTAP-deleted cancer cells. SAPs share a conserved PRMT5 binding motif (PBM) which mediates binding to a surface of PRMT5 distal to the catalytic site. This interaction is required for methylation of several PRMT5 substrates, including histone and spliceosome complexes. We screened for small molecule inhibitors of the PRMT5-PBM interaction and validated a compound series which binds to the PRMT5-PBM interface and directly inhibits binding of SAPs. Mode of action studies revealed the formation of a covalent bond between a halogenated pyridazinone group and cysteine 278 of PRMT5. Optimization of the starting hit produced a lead compound, BRD0639, which engages the target in cells, disrupts PRMT5-RIOK1 complexes, and reduces substrate methylation. BRD0639 is a first-in-class PBM-competitive inhibitor that can support studies of PBM-dependent PRMT5 activities and the development of novel PRMT5 inhibitors that selectively target these functions.

The myotonic dystrophy–related Cdc42-binding kinases MRCKα and MRCKβ contribute to the regulation of actin–myosin cytoskeleton organization and dynamics, acting in concert with the Rho-associated coiled-coil kinases ROCK1 and ROCK2. The absence of highly potent and selective MRCK inhibitors has resulted in relatively little knowledge of the potential roles of these kinases in cancer. Here, we report the discovery of the azaindole compounds BDP8900 and BDP9066 as potent and selective MRCK inhibitors that reduce substrate phosphorylation, leading to morphologic changes in cancer cells along with inhibition of their motility and invasive character. In over 750 human cancer cell lines tested, BDP8900 and BDP9066 displayed consistent antiproliferative effects with greatest activity in hematologic cancer cells. Mass spectrometry identified MRCKα S1003 as an autophosphorylation site, enabling development of a phosphorylation-sensitive antibody tool to report on MRCKα status in tumor specimens. In a two-stage chemical carcinogenesis model of murine squamous cell carcinoma, topical treatments reduced MRCKα S1003 autophosphorylation and skin papilloma outgrowth. In parallel work, we validated a phospho-selective antibody with the capability to monitor drug pharmacodynamics. Taken together, our findings establish an important oncogenic role for MRCK in cancer, and they offer an initial preclinical proof of concept for MRCK inhibition as a valid therapeutic strategy. Significance: The development of selective small-molecule inhibitors of the Cdc42-binding MRCK kinases reveals their essential roles in cancer cell viability, migration, and invasive character. Cancer Res; 78(8); 2096–114. ©2018 AACR.

Exploiting oxidative stress has recently emerged as a plausible strategy for treatment of human cancer, and antioxidant defenses are implicated in resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Targeted suppression of antioxidant defenses could thus broadly improve therapeutic outcomes. Here, we identify the AMPK-related kinase NUAK1 as a key component of the antioxidant stress response pathway and reveal a specific requirement for this role of NUAK1 in colorectal cancer. We show that NUAK1 is activated by oxidative stress and that this activation is required to facilitate nuclear import of the antioxidant master regulator NRF2: Activation of NUAK1 coordinates PP1β inhibition with AKT activation in order to suppress GSK3β-dependent inhibition of NRF2 nuclear import. Deletion of NUAK1 suppresses formation of colorectal tumors, whereas acute depletion of NUAK1 induces regression of preexisting autochthonous tumors. Importantly, elevated expression of NUAK1 in human colorectal cancer is associated with more aggressive disease and reduced overall survival. Significance: This work identifies NUAK1 as a key facilitator of the adaptive antioxidant response that is associated with aggressive disease and worse outcome in human colorectal cancer. Our data suggest that transient NUAK1 inhibition may provide a safe and effective means for treatment of human colorectal cancer via disruption of intrinsic antioxidant defenses. Cancer Discov; 8(5); 632–47. ©2018 AACR. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 517

Inhibitors of the Hsp90 molecular chaperone are showing promise as anti-cancer agents. Here we describe a series of 4-aryl-5-cyanopyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidine ATP competitive Hsp90 inhibitors that were identified following structure-driven optimization of purine hits revealed by NMR based screening of a proprietary fragment library. Ligand-Hsp90 X-ray structures combined with molecular modeling led to the rational displacement of a conserved water molecule leading to enhanced affinity for Hsp90 as measured by fluorescence polarization, isothermal titration calorimetry and surface plasmon resonance assays. This displacement was achieved with a nitrile group, presenting an example of efficient gain in binding affinity with minimal increase in molecular weight. Some compounds in this chemical series inhibit the proliferation of human cancer cell lines in vitro and cause depletion of oncogenic Hsp90 client proteins and concomitant elevation of the co-chaperone Hsp70. In addition, one compound was demonstrated to be orally bioavailable in the mouse. This work demonstrates the power of structure-based design for the rapid evolution of potent Hsp90 inhibitors and the importance of considering conserved water molecules in drug design.

FRET biosensors have proven very useful tools for studying the activation of specific signalling pathways in living cells. Most biosensors designed to date have been predicated on fluorescent protein pairs that were identified by, and for use in, intensity based measurements, however fluorescence lifetime provides a more reliable measurement of FRET. Both the technology and fluorescent proteins available for FRET have moved on dramatically in the last decade. Lifetime imaging systems have become increasingly accessible and user-friendly, and there is an entire field of biology dedicated to refining and adapting different characteristics of existing and novel fluorescent proteins. This growing pool of fluorescent proteins includes the long-lifetime green and cyan fluorescent proteins Clover and mTurquoise2, the red variant mRuby2, and the dark acceptor sREACh. Here, we have tested these donors and acceptors in appropriate combinations against the standard or recommended norms (EGFP and mTFP as donors, mCherry and either Ypet or Venus as acceptors) to determine if they could provide more reliable, reproducible and quantifiable FLIM-FRET data to improve on the dynamic range compared to other donors and breadth of application of biosensor technologies. These tests were performed for comparison on both a wide-field, frequency domain system and a multiphoton, TCSPC time domain FLIM system. Clover proved to be an excellent donor with extended dynamic range in combination with mCherry on both platforms, while mRuby2 showed a high degree of variability and poor FRET efficiencies in all cases. mTFP-Venus was the most consistent cyan-yellow pair between the two FLIM methodologies, but mTurquoise2 has better dynamic range and transfers energy consistently over time to the dark acceptor sRCh. Combination of mTFP-sRCh with Clover-mCherry would allow the simultaneous use of two FLIM-FRET biosensors within one sample by eliminating the crosstalk between the yellow acceptor and green donor emissions.

The anti-apoptotic function of the 70 kDa family of heat shock proteins and their role in cancer is well documented. Dual targeting of Hsc70 and Hsp70 with siRNA induces proteasome-dependent degradation of Hsp90 client proteins and extensive tumor specific apoptosis as well as the potentiation of tumor cell apoptosis following pharmacological Hsp90 inhibition.We have previously described the discovery and synthesis of novel adenosine-derived inhibitors of the 70 kDa family of heat shock proteins; the first inhibitors described to target the ATPase binding domain. The in vitro activity of VER-155008 was evaluated in HCT116, HT29, BT474 and MDA-MB-468 carcinoma cell lines. Cell proliferation, cell apoptosis and caspase 3/7 activity was determined for VER-155008 in the absence or presence of small molecule Hsp90 inhibitors.VER-155008 inhibited the proliferation of human breast and colon cancer cell lines with GI(50)s in the range 5.3-14.4 microM, and induced Hsp90 client protein degradation in both HCT116 and BT474 cells. As a single agent, VER-155008 induced caspase-3/7 dependent apoptosis in BT474 cells and non-caspase dependent cell death in HCT116 cells. VER-155008 potentiated the apoptotic potential of a small molecule Hsp90 inhibitor in HCT116 but not HT29 or MDA-MB-468 cells. In vivo, VER-155008 demonstrated rapid metabolism and clearance, along with tumor levels below the predicted pharmacologically active level.These data suggest that small molecule inhibitors of Hsc70/Hsp70 phenotypically mimic the cellular mode of action of a small molecule Hsp90 inhibitor and can potentiate the apoptotic potential of a small molecule Hsp90 inhibitor in certain cell lines. The factors determining whether or not cells apoptose in response to Hsp90 inhibition or the combination of Hsp90 plus Hsc70/Hsp70 inhibition remain to be determined.

We describe the biological properties of NVP-AUY922, a novel resorcinylic isoxazole amide heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitor. NVP-AUY922 potently inhibits HSP90 (Kd = 1.7 nmol/L) and proliferation of human tumor cells with GI50 values of approximately 2 to 40 nmol/L, inducing G1-G2 arrest and apoptosis. Activity is independent of NQO1/DT-diaphorase, maintained in drug-resistant cells and under hypoxic conditions. The molecular signature of HSP90 inhibition, comprising induced HSP72 and depleted client proteins, was readily demonstrable. NVP-AUY922 was glucuronidated less than previously described isoxazoles, yielding higher drug levels in human cancer cells and xenografts. Daily dosing of NVP-AUY922 (50 mg/kg i.p. or i.v.) to athymic mice generated peak tumor levels at least 100-fold above cellular GI50. This produced statistically significant growth inhibition and/or regressions in human tumor xenografts with diverse oncogenic profiles: BT474 breast tumor treated/control, 21%; A2780 ovarian, 11%; U87MG glioblastoma, 7%; PC3 prostate, 37%; and WM266.4 melanoma, 31%. Therapeutic effects were concordant with changes in pharmacodynamic markers, including induction of HSP72 and depletion of ERBB2, CRAF, cyclin-dependent kinase 4, phospho-AKT/total AKT, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, determined by Western blot, electrochemiluminescent immunoassay, or immunohistochemistry. NVP-AUY922 also significantly inhibited tumor cell chemotaxis/invasion in vitro, WM266.4 melanoma lung metastases, and lymphatic metastases from orthotopically implanted PC3LN3 prostate carcinoma. NVP-AUY922 inhibited proliferation, chemomigration, and tubular differentiation of human endothelial cells and antiangiogenic activity was reflected in reduced microvessel density in tumor xenografts. Collectively, the data show that NVP-AUY922 is a potent, novel inhibitor of HSP90, acting via several processes (cytostasis, apoptosis, invasion, and angiogenesis) to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. NVP-AUY922 has entered phase I clinical trials. [Cancer Res 2008;68(8):2850–60]

Inhibitors of the Hsp90 molecular chaperone are showing considerable promise as potential chemotherapeutic agents for cancer. Here, we describe the structure-based design, synthesis, structure-activity relationships and pharmacokinetics of potent small-molecule inhibitors of Hsp90 based on the 4,5-diarylisoxazole scaffold. Analogues from this series have high affinity for Hsp90, as measured in a fluorescence polarization (FP) competitive binding assay, and are active in cancer cell lines where they inhibit proliferation and exhibit a characteristic profile of depletion of oncogenic proteins and concomitant elevation of Hsp72. Compound 40f (VER-52296/NVP-AUY922) is potent in the Hsp90 FP binding assay (IC50 = 21 nM) and inhibits proliferation of various human cancer cell lines in vitro, with GI50 averaging 9 nM. Compound 40f is retained in tumors in vivo when administered i.p., as evaluated by cassette dosing in tumor-bearing mice. In a human colon cancer xenograft model, 40f inhibits tumor growth by approximately 50%.

Finding novel compounds as starting points for optimization is a major challenge in drug discovery research. Fragment-based methods have emerged in the past ten years as an effective way to sample chemical diversity with a limited number of low molecular weight compounds. The structures of the fragments(s) binding to the protein can then be used to design new compounds with increased affinity, specificity and novelty. This article describes the Vernalis approach to fragment based drug discovery, called SeeDs (Structural exploitation of experimental Drug startpoints). The approach includes the design of a fragment library, identification of fragments that bind competitively to a target by ligand-based NMR techniques and protein crystal structures to characterize binding. Fragments that bind are then evolved to hits, either by growing the fragment or by combining structural features from a number of compounds. The process is illustrated with examples from recent medicinal chemistry programmes to discover compounds against the oncology targets Hsp90 and PDK1. In addition, we summarise our experience with using molecular docking calculations to predict fragment binding and anecdotes on the selectivity and binding modes for fragments seen against a range of targets.

Virtual screening against a pCDK2/cyclin A crystal structure led to the identification of a potent and novel CDK2 inhibitor, which exhibited an unusual mode of interaction with the kinase binding motif. With the aid of X-ray crystallography and modelling, a medicinal chemistry strategy was implemented to probe the interactions seen in the crystal structure and to establish SAR. A fragment-based approach was also considered but a different, more conventional, binding mode was observed. Compound selectivity against GSK-3beta was improved using a rational design strategy, with crystallographic verification of the CDK2 binding mode.

// Andrew J. Massey 1 , Stephen Stokes 1 , Helen Browne 1 , Nicolas Foloppe 1 , Andrea Fiumana 1 , Simon Scrace 1,3 , Mandy Fallowfield 1 , Simon Bedford 1 , Paul Webb 1 , Lisa Baker 1 , Mark Christie 2 , Martin J. Drysdale 1,4 and Mike Wood 1 1 Vernalis Research, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK 2 Akranim Ltd, Maidstone, UK 3 Horizon Discovery, Cambridge Research Park, Waterbeach, Cambridge, UK 4 Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, UK Correspondence to: Andrew J. Massey, email: // Keywords : Chk1, V158411, fragment, drug discovery, colon cancer Received : June 17, 2015 Accepted : September 14, 2015 Published : September 30, 2015 Abstract Chk1 kinase is a critical component of the DNA damage response checkpoint especially in cancer cells and targeting Chk1 is a potential therapeutic opportunity for potentiating the anti-tumor activity of DNA damaging chemotherapy drugs. Fragment elaboration by structure guided design was utilized to identify and develop a novel series of Chk1 inhibitors culminating in the identification of V158411, a potent ATP-competitive inhibitor of the Chk1 and Chk2 kinases. V158411 abrogated gemcitabine and camptothecin induced cell cycle checkpoints, resulting in the expected modulation of cell cycle proteins and increased cell death in cancer cells. V158411 potentiated the cytotoxicity of gemcitabine, cisplatin, SN38 and camptothecin in a variety of p53 deficient human tumor cell lines in vitro , p53 proficient cells were unaffected. In nude mice, V158411 showed minimal toxicity as a single agent and in combination with irinotecan. In tumor bearing animals, V158411 was detected at high levels in the tumor with a long elimination half-life; no pharmacologically significant in vivo drug-drug interactions with irinotecan were identified through analysis of the pharmacokinetic profiles. V158411 potentiated the anti-tumor activity of irinotecan in a variety of human colon tumor xenograft models without additional systemic toxicity. These results demonstrate the opportunity for combining V158411 with standard of care chemotherapeutic agents to potentiate the therapeutic efficacy of these agents without increasing their toxicity to normal cells. Thus, V158411 would warrant further clinical evaluation.

Medicinal Chemists and Drug Hunters have always been looking for the minimal active “fragment” as the start point for any small molecule discovery project. Back in the day that usually meant deconstruction of a high throughput screening hit or some other bioactive molecule. I was fortunate enough to become involved very early on in the revolution which has become “Fragment-Based Drug Discovery (FBDD)” which is now firmly established as part of the Drug Discovery Armoury. FBDD is at the vanguard of some of the most exciting developments in small molecule targeting of many of the highest value targets in medicine today.

This review explains why the chaperone Hsp90 is an exciting protein target for the discovery of new drugs to treat cancer in the clinic, and summarises the properties of natural product derived inhibitors before relating the discovery and current state of development of synthetic pyrazole compounds. Blockade of Hsp90 results in reduced cellular levels of several proteins implicated in cancer including CDK4, ERBB2 and C-RAF, and causes simultaneous inhibition of cancer cell proliferation in culture and of tumor xenograft growth in vivo. Hsp90 has an ATPase domain that is necessary for its Hsp chaperone function, and X-ray crystallography has shown that natural product inhibitors (geldanamycin, radicicol) of Hsp90 function bind to this domain. High throughput assays focusing on the ATPase activity of Hsp90 were developed and used to discover novel chemical starting points for cancer drug discovery. The discovery, synthesis and SAR of 3,4-diaryl pyrazoles is described. X-Ray crystallography of protein-inhibitor complexes revealed important interactions involving the resorcinol substituent at C-3, and these X-ray structures strongly influenced subsequent medicinal chemistry research that has resulted in highly potent inhibitors with sub-micromolar activity in cells. SAR and X-ray data are summarised for analogues in which the 4-phenyl substituent is replaced by amides or piperazine derivatives. Prospects for the pyrazoles as they progress towards clinical development are discussed in relation to current Phase I trials with derivatives of geldanamycin.

Novel piperazinyl, morpholino and piperidyl derivatives of the pyrazole-based Hsp90 inhibitor CCT018159 are described. Structure–activity relationships have been elucidated by X-ray co-crystal analysis of the new compounds bound to the N-terminal domain of human Hsp90. Key features of the binding mode are essentially identical to the recently reported potent analogue VER-49009. The most potent of the new compounds has a methylsulfonylbenzyl substituent appended to the piperazine nitrogen, possesses an IC50 of less than 600 nM binding against the enzyme and demonstrates low micromolar inhibition of tumour cell proliferation.

Fused carbocyclic systems containing seven- and eight-membered rings can be constructed from allylic ethers in a stereoselective manner by tandem carbenoid generation, ylide formation and [2,3] rearrangement. Exceptionally high yields are obtained in cases where the substrate possesses favourable relative stereochemistry. The dienes resulting from [2,3] rearrangement of gem-divinyl ylides undergo Diels–Alder cycloaddition with reactive dienophiles at room temperature. Ylide formation, rearrangement and cycloaddition can be performed in a one-pot process to generate complex tetracyclic systems in a highly stereoselective manner. (© Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2006)

Docking-based virtual screening identified 1-(2-phenol)-2-naphthol compounds as a new class of Hsp90 inhibitors of low to sub-micromolar potency. Here we report the binding affinities and cellular activities of several members of this class. A high resolution crystal structure of the most potent compound reveals its binding mode in the ATP binding site of Hsp90, providing a rationale for the observed activity of the series and suggesting strategies for developing compounds with improved properties.

Information from X-ray crystal structures of Hsp90 inhibitors bound to the human Hsp90 molecular chaperone was used to assist in the design of 3-(5-chloro-2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-pyrazole-4-carboxamides as novel inhibitors of Hsp90. Accessing an extra interaction with the protein via Phe138 gave a significant increase in binding potency compared to similar analogues that do not make this interaction.

The crystal structure of a previously reported screening hit 1 (CCT018159) bound to the N terminal domain of molecular chaperone Hsp90 has been used to design 5-amide analogues. These exhibit enhanced potency against the target in binding and functional assays with accompanying appropriate cellular pharmacodynamic changes. Compound 11 (VER-49009) compares favorably with the clinically evaluated 17-AAG.

Inhibition of the ATPase activity of the chaperone protein HSP90 is a potential strategy for treatment of cancers. We have determined structures of the HSP90α N-terminal domain complexed with the purine-based inhibitor, PU3, and analogs with enhanced potency both in enzyme and cell-based assays. The compounds induce upregulation of HSP70 and downregulation of the known HSP90 client proteins Raf-1, CDK4, and ErbB2, confirming that the molecules inhibit cell growth by a mechanism dependent on HSP90 inhibition. We have also determined the first structure of the N-terminal domain of HSP90β, complexed with PU3. The structures allow a detailed rationale to be developed for the observed affinity of the PU3 class of compounds for HSP90 and also provide a structural framework for design of compounds with improved binding affinity and drug-like properties.

Molecular chaperones are proteins that ensure the appropriate folding, stability and function of other proteins in the cell. There is increasing evidence that molecular chaperones are not only important in normal cell homeostasis and response to stresses, such as heat shock, but can also be involved in disease pathology. In particular, HSP90 has emerged as an important potential drug target in oncology. This is because it is essential for the stability of a long list of ‘client proteins’, including ErbB2/human epithelial growth factor receptor (HER)2, Raf-1, Akt/protein kinase B (PKB), Polo-1, Met, mutant p53 and human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT), as well as the oestrogen and androgen receptor. Inhibition of HSP90 leads to depletion of these oncogenic clients by the ubiquitin proteasome pathway, thereby providing a simultaneous combinatorial attack on all of the hallmark phenotypic traits of cancer cells. Because of the rapid progress made, this review focuses on the patents dealing with the ...

The targeting of RNA for the design of novel anti-viral compounds represents an area of vast potential. We have used NMR and computational methods to model the interaction of a series of synthetic inhibitors of the in vitro RNA binding activities of a peptide derived from the transcriptional activator protein, Tat, from human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Inhibition has been measured through the monitering of fluorescence resonance energy transfer between fluorescently labeled peptide and RNA components. A series of compounds containing a bi-aryl heterocycle as one of the three substituents on a benzylic scaffold, induce a novel, inactive TAR conformation by stacking between base-pairs at the site of a three-base bulge within TAR. The development of this series resulted in an enhancement in potency (with Ki < 100 nM in an in vitro assay) and the removal of problematic guanidinium moieties. Ligands from this series can act as inhibitors of Tat-induced transcription in a cell-free system. This study validates the drug design strategy of using a ligand to target the RNA receptor in a non-functional conformation.

Multiple co-crystal structures of an adenine-based series of inhibitors bound to the molecular chaperone Hsp90 have been determined. These structures explain the observed SAR for previously described compounds and new compounds, which possess up to 8-fold improved potency against the isolated enzyme. Anti-tumour cell potency and mechanism of action data is also described for the most potent compounds. These data should enable the design of more potent Hsp90 inhibitors.

The actin-bundling protein fascin 1 is markedly overexpressed in a range of invasive tumors and is believed to play a critical role in cancer cell metastasis. Targeting fascin is however very challenging owing to its mechanism of protein-protein interaction and a lack of knowledge regarding the crucial actin-binding sites. By combining a fragment-based approach, biophysical assay screening and X-ray crystallography, we have been able to identify and optimize novel fascin 1 inhibitors that show nanomolar affinity in biochemical binding and bundling assays. We now show the development of functional cell assays in which the lead fascin inhibitor compounds have been tested. For the first time we disclose the structures of the most advanced compounds and show their effects in 2D and 3D cell culture. Fascin 1 binds and cross-links filamentous actin (F-actin) into parallel bundles that are used in the formation of dynamic cellular protrusions (such as lamellipodia and filopodia) used during cell migration, and in the formation of invadopodia used by tumor cell lines to degrade the tumor extracellular matrix (ECM). Whereas fascin 1 expression is low or absent in normal epithelia, its expression is dramatically increased in a variety of invasive tumor types including colon, lung, ovarian and pancreas, with increased expression being an independent prognostic indicator of poor clinical outcome in the most aggressive and metastatic tumor types. Knockdown of fascin expression has been shown to reduce tumor cell invasion both in vitro and in vivo, thereby highlighting fascin as an important drug discovery target. Small molecule inhibitors of fascin 1 were identified by screening our fragment library (~1000 compounds) using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). X-ray co-crystallography with these hit compounds showed four distinct ligand binding sites within the fascin protein. Optimized site 2 binders induce a substantial conformational change, with the deeply enclosed pocket between fascin domains 1 and 2 opening a channel that accesses the surface of the protein. A virtual screen identified the compound BDP-00010834, which binds in this pocket with an SPR Kd of 29.7µM and also inhibits (IC50=50µM) the functional activity of fascin measured in an F-actin bundling assay. Structure-based optimization in combination with X-ray co-crystallography has enabled the generation of compounds with more than 300-fold increase in both binding affinity and functional activity over this screening hit. Our current best-in-series compounds include BDP-00013544 (Kd=29nM, IC50=185nM). These lead compounds have now been tested in a number of cell based invasion assays including both 2D and 3D cultures. Citation Format: Daniel Croft, Stuart Francis, Justin Bower, Andrea Gohlke, Gillian Goodwin, Christopher Gray, Jennifer Konczal, Sophie Macconnachie, Patricia McConnell, Laura McDonald, Heather McKinnon, Mokdad Mezna, Charles Parry, Nikki Paul, Angelo Pugliese, Alexander Schuettelkopf, Laura Machesky, Martin Drysdale. Identifying small molecule inhibitors of Fascin 1 using fragment-based drug discovery [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr LB-228. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-LB-228

Fragment-Based Drug Discovery (FBDD) is here to stay. Validated as a technology with the delivery of Zelboraf (Vemurafenib) for the treatment of mutant B-RafV600E melanoma, it has become embedded within the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. FBDD has delivered clinical development candidates for a broad range of targets including some of the most challenging cases such as β-secretase (BACE1) and protein–protein interactions. But the best is surely still to come.

Reaction of a range of bis(ylides) with acid chlorides has been used to prepare the bis(oxoylides) 11–15 . Similarly a range of simple ylides react with bis(acid chlorides) to give bis(oxoylides) 19–27 with the isomeric structure. Flash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP) of one example of the first type results in extrusion of Ph 3 P rather than the expected Ph 3 PO while six examples of the second type do extrude Ph 3 PO upon FVP at 500 °C to afford the bis(alkynes) 28 . Examples of the corresponding bis(tributylphosphonium ylides) have also been prepared but attempts to construct a tetrakis(oxoylide) 31 using a stepwise approach were unsuccessful. Fully assigned 13 C NMR spectra are presented for six of the bis(oxoylides).

The identification of high-quality hits during the early phases of drug discovery is essential if projects are to have a realistic chance of progressing into clinical development and delivering marketed drugs. As the pharmaceutical industry goes through unprecedented change, there are increasing opportunities to collaborate via pre-competitive networks to marshal multifunctional resources and knowledge to drive impactful, innovative science. The 3D Fragment Consortium is developing fragment-screening libraries with enhanced 3D characteristics and evaluating their effect on the quality of fragment-based hit identification (FBHI) projects.

Fascin 1 is an actin-bundling protein that is dramatically overexpressed in a variety of invasive tumors and thought to have a critical role in cancer cell metastasis. However, as a drug target it is highly challenging due to its mechanism of protein-protein interaction and the lack of knowledge around the critical actin-binding sites. Using a fragment-based approach, biophysical assay screening and X-ray crystallography, we have been able to identify and optimize novel fascin 1 inhibitors. Furthermore we have developed robust and reproducible biochemical binding and bundling assays which have allowed us to develop ligands with submicromolar affinity. Fascin 1 cross-links filamentous actin (F-actin) into parallel bundles that are involved in the formation of dynamic cellular protrusions (such as lamellipodia and filopodia) used during cell migration. It also contributes to the formation of actin-rich finger-like protrusions, termed invadopodia, that tumor cell lines use to degrade the tumor extracellular matrix (ECM). Fascin 1 expression is low or absent in normal epithelia but is dramatically increased in a variety of tumor types including bladder, colon, lung, ovarian and pancreas. Its increased expression is associated with the most aggressive and metastatic tumor types and has been shown to be an independent prognostic indicator of poor clinical outcome. Fascin knockdown has been shown to reduce tumor cell invasion both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting fascin as a valid target for small molecule inhibitors. We have utilized a fragment-based screening approach incorporating surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to identify small molecules that bind to fascin 1. Our fragment library (∼1000 compounds) yielded 53 hit compounds that were confirmed by dose-response. Using these hits, X-ray co-crystallography identified four independent ligand binding sites within fascin. We have concentrated our efforts on one site, a deeply enclosed pocket between fascin domains 1 and 2. A number of fragment hits and commercial analogues were found to bind in this pocket and open a channel towards the surface of the protein. Subsequent virtual screening studies identified BDP-00010834, a compound which binds in this pocket with an SPR Kd of 29.7μM. Moreover, BDP-00010834 shows activity (IC50 = 50μM) in a functional biochemical screening assay that measures fascin-mediated F-actin bundling. Structure-based optimization together with X-ray co-crystallography has generated compounds with a 25- to 50-fold increase in both binding affinity and functional activity over this screening hit. Best-in-series compounds include BDP-00011163 (Kd = 1.2μM, IC50 = 0.8μM) and BDP-00011165 (Kd = 0.6μM, IC50 = 1.1μM). Citation Format: Daniel Croft, Stuart Francis, Alexander Schuettelkopf, Charles Parry, Gillian Goodwin, Angelo Pugliese, Laura McDonald, Maeve Clarke, Andrew Pannifer, Jen Lonsdale, Christopher Gray, Justin Bower, Heather McKinnon, Laura Machesky, Martin Drysdale. A fragment-based approach towards the identification of small molecule inhibitors of fascin 1. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR-NCI-EORTC International Conference: Molecular Targets and Cancer Therapeutics; 2015 Nov 5-9; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Mol Cancer Ther 2015;14(12 Suppl 2):Abstract nr A113.

78 kDa glucose-regulated protein (Grp78) is a heat shock protein (HSP) involved in protein folding that plays a role in cancer cell proliferation. Binding of adenosine-derived inhibitors to Grp78 was characterized by surface plasmon resonance and isothermal titration calorimetry. The most potent compounds were 13 (VER-155008) with K(D) = 80 nM and 14 with K(D) = 60 nM. X-ray crystal structures of Grp78 bound to ATP, ADPnP, and adenosine derivative 10 revealed differences in the binding site between Grp78 and homologous proteins.