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Temporal lobe epilepsy involves a sequence of events that can lead to neurotransmitter signalling alterations. There are many herbal extracts considered to be alternative therapeutic methods to manage epilepsy. In this study, we investigated the effect of Withania somnifera (WS) root extract and withanolide A (WA) in the management of temporal lobe epilepsy. Confocal imaging of TOPRO-3-stained cortical sections showed severe damage in the epileptic brain. We also observed a reduced antioxidant potential and increased peroxide levels in the epileptic test group of rats. Oxidative stress resulted in the down-regulation of CREB, NF-κB, and TNF-α, and with up-regulation of the apoptotic factors caspases 8 and 3 and Bax in the epileptic group. Epileptic condition also resulted in increased muscarinic receptor binding and mRNA expression in the cerebral cortex. Withania somnifera and withanolide A significantly reversed the altered muscarinic receptor expression and reversed the oxidative stress and resultant derailment in cell signalling. Thus our studies suggest that Withania somnifera and withanolide A play important roles in central muscarinic receptor functional balance and activation of the antioxidant system in the cerebral cortex in temporal lobe epilepsy. These findings can be of immense therapeutic significance for managing epilepsy.

In the present study we have investigated the changes in the total muscarinic and muscarinic M1 receptor ([(3)H]QNB) binding and gene expression in the cerebral cortex of streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic, insulin and aqueous extract of Aegle marmelose leaf treated diabetic rats.Diabetes was induced in rats by intrafemoral injection of streptozotocin. Aegle marmelose leaves was given orally to one group of rats at a dosage of 1g/kg body weight per day for fourteen days. Blood glucose and plasma insulin level were measured. Muscarinic and Muscarinic M1 receptor binding studies were done in the cerebral cortex of experimental rats. Muscarinic M1 receptor gene expression was studied using real-time PCR.Scatchard analysis for total muscarinic receptors in cerebral cortex showed that the B(max) was decreased significantly (p0.001) in diabetic rats with a significant decrease (p0.01) in the K(d) when compared to control group. Binding analysis of Muscarinic M1 receptors showed that B(max) was decreased significantly (p0.001) in diabetic group when compared to control group. The K(d) also decreased significantly (p0.01) when compared to control group. The binding parameters were reversed to near control by the treatment of diabetic rats with Aegle marmelose. Real-Time PCR analysis also showed a similar change in the mRNA levels of muscarinic M1 receptors.The results showed that there is decrease in total muscarinic and muscarinic M1 receptors during diabetes which is up regulated by insulin and Aegle marmelose leaf extract treatment. This has clinical significance in therapeutic management of diabetes.

Ghatixalus magnus sp. nov. (Figs. 2 C, 3, Tables 1 & 2) Holotype: TNHM (H) 15.5.20 / 80, adult male (81.90 SVL), collected from near a forest stream, 10 �� 7 ' 53.75 "N, 76 �� 59 ' 57.20 "E, at elevation 1440m ASL in Kadalar, Idukki district, Kerala, India by Anil Zachariah on 0 5 May 2015. For spp. IFE 16.78 15.32 9.62 8.32 Ghatixalus of EN EL 8.16 8.12 7.61 7.34 6.9 4.46 3.83 4.84 specimens SL 13.19 12.25 8.61 7.91 male HL 27.84 25.34 15.76 13.9 adult HW 31.02 28.53 17.82 15.32 of) mm SVL 81.90 71.54 48.81 45.13 in ( measurements # Museum H () TNHM / 80 15.5.20) (H TNHM / 81 14.8.01 TNHM () H / 12.6.18 68 (TNHM) H 67 / 12.6.18 Morphometric Sex magnus M Holotype) M magnus) Paratype asterops M M 1. (( TABLE Species Ghatixalus. nov. sp Ghatixalus.sp. nov Ghatixalus Ghatixalus variabilis TMW 8.13 4.88 5.48 BW 12.45 7.90 8.06 HW 12.32 7.74 9.29. SSD 14.93 8.62 10.96 methods IOD 5.79 3.09 5.20 and Materials END IND 6.90 2.66 1.05 1.58 1.57 2.63 see , abbreviations NSD LTF 4.17 3.42 2.19 1.32 3.23 1.74 For spp.. UTF 3.34 2.82 3.13 Ghatixalus MTH 13.21 5.73 9.29 of) 39 TMH 8.13 4.75 6.16 Stage (EL 1.88 1.72 1.84 specimens BH 10.53 6.53 7.49 tadpole TAL 48.01 31.75 34.96 of) mm ( in BL 21.48 15.63 16.87 measurements TL. nov 69.70 47.38 51.00 Morphometric Species sp magnus. variabilis asterops 2 TABLE . Ghatixalus Ghatixalus Ghatixalus Paratype: TNHM (H) 14.8.01 / 81, adult male (76.91 SVL), collected from near a forest stream, 10 �� 7 ' 54.95 "N, 76 �� 59 ' 57.89 "E, at elevation 1409 m ASL in Kadalar, Idukki district, Kerala, India by Robin Abraham on 0 9 July 2014. Diagnosis: Ghatixalus magnus sp. nov. can be easily differentiated from its two congeners by the following combination of characters: adult male large, SVL 79.40 �� 1.0, N = 2 (vs. SVL 46.67 �� 2.0, N = 7 in G. variabilis; SVL 41.93 �� 2.0, N = 4 in G. asterops); eye to nostril distance subequal to eye diameter (vs. eye to nostril distance shorter than eye diameter in G. variabilis and G. asterops); anterio-ventral parts of thighs smooth and posteroventral regions of thighs areolate (vs. ventral surface of thighs areolate in both G. variabilis and G. asterops); and larger distance from tympanum to eye distance, TYE 2.57 �� 1.0 (vs. 1.23 in G. variabilis; 1.30 in G. asterops). G. magnus sp. nov also differs from G. asterops in that the supratympanic fold extends from the posterior corner of the eye to below the level of the forearm (vs. supratympanic fold extends from the posterior corner of the eye and ending just above the level of the forearm). Description of Holotype: A large-sized adult male, SVL 81.90 (Fig. 2 C, 3); head length (HL 27.84) slightly less than width (HW 31.02); snout acutely rounded in ventral aspect, rounded in lateral profile, greatly protruding; snout length (SL 13.19) greater than eye diameter (EL 8.16); canthus rostralis rounded, loreal region obtusely flat; nostrils closer to the tip of the snout than to front of eye; eye to nostril distance (EN 8.12) subequal to eye diameter; interorbital distance (IUE 11.38) greater than upper eyelid width (UEW 6.75); pupil oval, horizontal; tympanum distinct, rounded, TYD 4.75, 1.8 times larger than distance from tympanum to eye (TYE 2.57); supratympanic fold distinct, extending from behind the outer canthus to just below the level of the forearm; symphysial knob Wshaped; lanceolate tongue without lingual papilla; choanal opening oval; pair of vomerine ridges present, directed inwards with a gap between, bearing seven minute round teeth each, odontophores oblique and widely separated between choanae; vocal sac single, median and subgular. Forelimbs (FLL 19.67) shorter than hand (HAL 25.88); fingers with moderate lateral dermal fringe and bearing large truncate discs with distinct circum-marginal grooves; relative length of fingers: IIColoration of Holotype in Life: Dorsum pale rusty-yellowish, reticulated with numerous small bright-yellow irregular blotches; lateral side chocolate brown with creamy reticulations and purplish-turquoise blotches on the groin; loreal region and tympanum pale yellow with a narrow bright yellow band on the canthus rostralis and the upper margin of the tympanic fold converging at the snout tip; iris purplish-grey, with numerous black venations; limbs rusty-yellow with dark brown cross-bands, fingers and toes with cross-bands, discs yellowish, posterior side of thigh brown without reticulation, but a few, scattered yellow blotches; venter dull creamy to grey white; foot and hand light turquoise blue, webbing bluish-brown. Coloration of Holotype in Preservative: Dorsum dark brown with dull-yellow irregular blotches; lateral sides dark brown with numerous irregular dull-yellow blotches which extend from behind the arms till the groin; tympanum yellowish-brown, upper eyelid grey; venter brownish-grey, lighter at the throat and chest, darkening towards the posterior; hands and feet pale blue. Etymology: The specific name is latin for 'great', alluding to its larger size as compared to its congeners. Distribution and Natural History: Ghatixalus magnus sp. nov. has been recorded in the highlands of the southern Western Ghats between the Palakkad Gap and the Shencottah Gap. We found this species in forest near hill streams in Valparai and Parambikulam (in the Anamalai Range), Kadalar (in the High Ranges), Upper Manalar (in the High Wavy Hills) and near Pandianthodu (in the Pandalam Hills) (Fig. 7). The species occurs in midmontane rainforests at elevations between 1350 to 1800 m ASL. Tadpole description: Three tadpoles at Stages 37���40 were collected from a rocky stream pool on 0 5 May 2015. Sample tissue from a tadpole was DNA sequenced and analyzed to determine its species status. Description is based on a single tadpole at Stage 38 (Fig. 4 E). The large exotrophic tadpole is depressed and is yellowish-brown, interspersed with golden iridophores, which occur as small specks on the body and as larger blotches on the tail. The ventral and ventrolateral body sides are pale yellowish-brown and less pigmented. Eyes are golden-brown and of moderate size, positioned dorsolaterally and directed more laterally than anteriorly, not visible in ventral view. Naris equidistant from both snout and eye. Spiracle sinistral, ventrolaterally positioned at midbody. Myotomes of the tail musculature are well developed. Tail fin high, pointed at the end. Upper fin higher than lower fin. Oral disc anteroventrally positioned, of oval shape in expanded state, and emarginated laterally. Numerous marginal papillae frame the oral disc ventrally and laterally, but absent on the upper labium. Small submarginal papillae cover the entire inner rim of oral disc. Upper jaw sheath narrow and stretched into a wide U-shaped arch, and lower jaw sheath is narrower and V-shaped. Labial tooth row formula (LTRF) is 10 (6-10)/ 10 (10) (Fig. 5 C). In contrast, LTRF of both G. variabilis and G. asterops is 7 (3-7)/ 6 (1); this matches the old formula for G. variabilis (2: 5 + 5 / 1 + 1: 5) described by Annandale (1918). Advanced stages of development have been recorded as well (Fig. 6)., Published as part of Abraham, Robin Kurian, Mathew, Jobin K., Cyriac, Vivek Philip, Zachariah, Arun, Raju, David V. & Zachariah, Anil, 2015, A novel third species of the Western Ghats endemic genus Ghatixalus (Anura: Rhacophoridae), with description of its tadpole, pp. 101-113 in Zootaxa 4048 (1) on pages 103-110, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4048.1.6, http://zenodo.org/record/237236, {"references":["Annandale, N. (1918) Some undescribed tadpoles from the hills of southern India. Records of the Indian Museum, 15, 17 - 23."]}

Abraham, Robin Kurian, Mathew, Jobin K., Cyriac, Vivek Philip, Zachariah, Arun, Raju, David V., Zachariah, Anil (2015): A novel third species of the Western Ghats endemic genus Ghatixalus (Anura: Rhacophoridae), with description of its tadpole. Zootaxa 4048 (1): 101-113, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4048.1.6

Aims Chronic hyperglycaemia in diabetes involves a direct neuronal damage caused by intracellular glucose which leads to altered neurotransmitter functions and reduced motor activity. The present study investigated the effect of curcumin in the functional regulation of muscarinic and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, insulin receptors, acetylcholine esterase and Glut3 in the cerebellum of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Main methods All studies were done in the cerebellum of male Wistar rats. Radioreceptor binding assays were done for total muscarinic, M1 and M3 receptors using specific ligands, and the gene expression was also studied using specific probes. Key findings Our results showed an increased gene expression of acetylcholine esterase, Glut3, muscarinic M1, M3, α7 nicotinic acetylcholine and insulin receptors in the cerebellum of diabetic rats in comparison to control. Scatchard analysis of total muscarinic, M1 and M3 receptors showed an increased binding parameter, Bmax in diabetic rats compared to control. Curcumin and insulin inhibited diabetes-induced elevation in the gene expression of acetylcholine esterase, Glut3, insulin and cholinergic receptors in the cerebellum of diabetic rats. Significance Our studies suggest that curcumin plays a vital role in regulating the activity of cholinergic and insulin receptors and mechanism of glucose transportation through Glut3, which results in normalizing the diabetes-mediated cerebellar disorders. Thus, curcumin has a significant role in a therapeutic application for the prevention or progression of diabetic complications in the cerebellum.