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Competitive pressure has also been shown to stimulate scale efficiency. In particular, it has been proposed that competitive pressure, primarily from import competition, forces scale-inefficient firms to grow to efficient production levels or to exit the industry. Hypothesizing that competitive pressure has a structural rather than a temporal effect on productivity growth implies that firm-level technical or scale inefficiency and laggard innovative activity may persist in the absence of pressure from competition. Competitive pressure has been regarded as a positive influence on technological progress. Pressure from competition is the power propelling Cochrane’s agricultural treadmill where firms are forced to innovate in the face of decreasing prices or exit the industry. A comparative analysis of productivity growth rates over the sixteen year period 1970–1985 and across the two groups of crops provides a direct test of the relationship between competitive pressure and productivity growth.

Examination of some of the mistakes found in the literature and popular press in addressing competitiveness and trade is instructive in identifying some of the misunderstandings of received theory. Trade theory is but one of the sub disciplines in economics concerned with issues related to competitiveness. Porter’s “National Diamond” is generally used in the context of case studies of competitiveness to assess the prospects of an industry, product, or economic activity. Competitiveness in international food markets, or in the domestic market with imports, is determined by decidedly different factors and measured by different instruments depending on the type of product produced. The most pervasive concept of competitiveness practiced by economists and agricultural economists is price competitiveness. Basing judgment of competitiveness or comparative advantage on international comparisons of costs of production across nations is probably the most blatant violation of received theory in the literature.

Market impacts of technological change in Canadian agriculture are measured within a computable general equilibrium framework using 2001 input-output data with agriculture disaggregated to six sectors and 13 commodities. Technological change is modeled as productivity rises in the use of intermediate inputs and of primary factors. Impacts on output, intermediate use of output, foreign trade, final consumption, returns to primary factors, and relative prices are calculated for primary agricultural commodities and processed food products. Impacts are summarized as three general outcomes. First, supply managed sectors adjust to technological change differently than other agricultural sectors. In the former, quota rents increase while in the latter, outputs, exports, and final consumption increase along with declines of relative supply prices. Second, large relative price declines for other commodities lead to consumer gains. Third, producer gains increase when the international competitiveness of agriculture increases. Finally, we compare the differential impact of technological change with and without supply management. L'impact que le changement technologique au sein de l’agriculture canadienne a sur le marche est evaluea l’aide d’un modele d’equilibre general calculable (EGC) qui utilise des donnees entrees-sorties de 2001 pour six secteurs agricoles et treize produits de base. Le changement technologique est modelise en termes de hausses de productivite dans l’utilisation d’intrants intermediaires et primaires. L'impact sur les extrants, l’utilisation intermediaire d’extrants, le commerce exterieur, la consommation finale, les rendements des intrants primaires et les prix relatifs sont calcules pour les principaux produits de base agricoles et produits alimentaires transformes. L'impact est classe en trois categories de resultats. Premierement, les secteurs soumis a la gestion de l’offre s’adaptent differemment des autres secteurs au changement technologique. Dans le premier cas, les rentes de contingentement augmentent tandis que dans le second, les extrants, les exportations et la consommation finale augmentent et les prix relatifs de l’offre diminuent. Deuxiemement, les chutes importantes du prix relatif d’autres produits de base entrainent des avantages pour le consommateur. Troisiemement, les gains du producteur augmentent lorsque la competitivite de l’agriculture sur la scene internationale augmente. Finalement, nous avons compare l’impact differentiel du changement technologique dans les secteurs soumis et non soumis a la gestion de l’offre.

This paper evaluates the impact of BSE-related trade restrictions on Canada using a general equilibrium model. It links selected results of the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) approach, a global computable general equilibrium model, with Basic Model of Regional Trade (BMRT), a Canadian regional model. We find first, that while producers were hurt a lot, there are other general equilibrium considerations (gains to processors and/or consumers) and sectoral adjustments that at the regional level tend to partially offset the losses suffered by producers. We also assess the extent to which opening of the U.S. border is important relative to access to the rest of the world. Our results indicate that the losses to the Canadian economy are around $1 billion and they were reduced significantly when Canada resumed beef trade with the United States, as a result of various government allegations. Le present article evalue, a l'aide d'un modele d'equilibre general, les repercussions des restrictions commerciales imposees envers le Canada a la suite de la decouverte d'un cas d'ESB. Il etablit un lien entre les resultats selectionnes du Projet d'analyse des echanges commerciaux (GTAP), un modele d'equilibre general mondial et programmable, et ceux du Modele de base des echanges regionaux (Basic Model of Regional Trade – BMRT), un modele regional canadien. Bien que les producteurs aient ete tres touches, il faut considerer d'autres elements d'equilibre general (gains realises par les transformateurs et/ou les consommateurs) et des ajustements sectoriels qui, a l'echelle regionale, tendent a compenser partiellement les pertes subies par les producteurs. Nous avons evalue l'etendue de l'importance de l'ouverture des frontieres des Etats-Unis par rapport a l'acces au marche du reste du monde. Selon nos resultats, les pertes pour l'economie canadienne avoisinent le milliard de dollars et ont considerablement diminue lorsque le Canada a repris le commerce duf avec les Etats-Unis a la suite de diverses allegations de la part du gouvernement.

This study investigates possible marketing strategies for biotechnology (biotech) functional foods in the U.S. market. Means-end chain theory is used to translate consumer product knowledge into self-knowledge, where knowledge is presumed to be organized in a hierarchy with concrete thoughts linked to more abstract thoughts in a sequence progressing from means to ends. A sample of 60 households was randomly drawn from the population of a Midwest town. The random sample was drawn from a population of females aged 20 to 50 with children and who regularly purchase yogurt products. Eight products with various attributes and production technologies were ranked by the participants prior to a hard laddering interview. The study found that biotech functional foods were generally acceptable to the participants. Functional attributes, such as higher protein, increased calcium, and lower cholesterol, were valued by the consumers. Soy was considered inferior on the basis of taste for some segments of consumers unfamiliar with soymilk. On the other hand, consumers already purchasing soymilk were more willing to purchase functional soy attributes and have more complex purchasing decisions (cognitive maps). These consumers associate soy with attaining values of “better health,”“taking care of family,”“happiness,” and “more choice.” La presente etude a examine les strategies de marketing possibles pour les aliments fonctionnels issus de la biotechnologie sur le marcheetatsunien. La methode de la chaine moyens-fins a ete utilisee pour traduire la connaissance du consommateur sur le produit en connaissance de soi, ou la connaissance est presumee etre structuree en hierarchie d'idees concretes liees a des idees plus abstraites dans un ordre progressant des moyens vers les fins. Nous avons forme un echantillon aleatoire de soixante menages d'une ville du Midwest. L'echantillon aleatoire a ete selectionne parmi une population de femmes âgees de 20 a 50 ans qui avaient des enfants et qui achetaient regulierement du yogourt. Huit produits renfermant des attributs varies et issus de technologies de production variees ont d'abord ete classes par les participants avant de proceder aux entrevues effectuees selon la technique du laddering. Les resultats ont montre que les aliments fonctionnels issus de la biotechnologie convenaient generalement aux participants. Les attributs des aliments fonctionnels tels que plus eleve en proteines, les plus eleve en calcium et faible en cholesterol etaient valorises par les consommateurs. Le soja est arrive en dernier pour le gout chez certains consommateurs qui connaissaient mal le lait de soja. Par contre, consommateurs qui achetaient deja du lait de soja etaient plus enclins a acheter les attributs fonctionnels du soja et avaient des decisions d'achats plus complexes (cartes cognitives). Ces consommateurs associaient le soja a des valeurs telles que ≪ meilleure sante≫, ≪ s'occuper de la famille ≫, ≪ bonheur ≫ et ≪ choix elargi ≫.

International audience; Dihydropteroate synthase gene (DHPS) mutations at codons 55 and 57 have been associated with sulfa/sulfone resistance in Pneumocystis jirovecii strains from patients who previously received prophylaxis. To evaluate the prevalence of these mutations, a portion of P jirovecii DHPS gene was analysed using PCR combined with restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis in 92 bronchoalveolar fluid samples collected between January 1998 and September 2001 from French patients with pulmonary pneumocystosis (PCP). Seventy-six samples contained the wild-type DHPS genotype (82.6%) and 16 contained a mutant genotype (17.4%). Twelve out of the 16 isolates with a mutant DHPS genotype corresponded to patients who had never received sulfa or sulfone prophylaxis, suggesting that DHPS mutants may be acquired de novo. There was no significant difference in favourable or adverse outcome in PCP caused by the wild or mutant DHPS genotypes (P = 0.34).

Differing views of multifunctionality—attributing nonmarket benefits to agricultural production—continue to be an obstacle in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations. Some nations see multifunctionality as justifying subsidies to agricultural production; others see it as disguised protection. This paper shows that while multifunctionality never justifies trade interventions, it can justify production subsidies or taxes. Recognizing that the subsidies or taxes can be economically efficient policies, nations must precisely define and value the externalities in order to design policies and defend those interventions in the WTO. Trade rules are developed that accommodate domestic policy intervention while preventing disguised protection.

Weaning from mechanical ventilation is a daily challenge in intensive care patients. Our objective was to explore microcirculatory perfusion during mechanical ventilation weaning and to evaluate its predictive value on the weaning outcome.Prospective observational study. All consecutive patients, older than 18 years, under mechanical ventilation that met the criteria for weaning were enrolled. Patients underwent a T-piece Spontaneous Breath Trial (SBT) for 60 minutes and the usual clinical parameters were recorded every 5 minutes. Microcirculatory perfusion was evaluated using the mottling score and the Tissue Oxygen Saturation (StO2) measured by Near Infrared Spectroscopy technology on the thenar and knee area.Seventy-three patients were studied (age: 67±15 years, men: 40, SAPS II: 47±15) after a duration of mechanical ventilation of 3 (1-6) days. Forty-five patients succeeded the first SBT. The mottling score severity recorded just before ventilator disconnection (baseline) was associated with weaning failure (P=0.03). Moreover, the mottling score increase during SBT was significantly associated with weaning failure (80% vs. 28%, P=0.001; Odds ratio 10.5 [2.0-54.8]). Baseline thenar StO2 was not different according to weaning outcome (failure 76±13% vs. success 77±7%, P=0.90) whereas baseline knee StO2 was significantly lower in patients who failed the first SBT (67±13% vs. 75±12%, P0.01). This difference was apparent since the very beginning of the SBT and lasted throughout the trial (P=0.0001).In unselected mechanically ventilated patients undergoing SBT, mottling score and knee StO2 are early predictors of weaning failure.

Objective:To investigate an outbreak ofBurkholderia cepacia.Design:Observational study and chart review.Patients:Adult non-cystic fibrosis (CF) patients.Setting:Intensive care units (ICUs) at a university-affiliated teaching hospital.Methods:As part of the epidemiological investigation, we conducted a chart review and collected environmental samples. A review of work schedules of healthcare workers also was performed. We usedB cepaciaselective agar for preliminary screening for all isolates, which subsequently were confirmed as members of theB cepaciacomplex by polyphasic analysis employing conventional biochemical reactions and genus- and species-specific polymerase chain reaction assays. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, randomly amplified polymorphic DNA typing, and automated ribotyping were used to genotype the isolates. As part of the intervention, contact isolation precautions were initiated for all patients identified as having had a culture positive forB cepacia.Results:Between September 1997 and September 1999,B cepaciawas isolated from 31 adult patients without CF in ICUs at a university-affiliated teaching hospital. Based on geographic clustering and genotypic analysis, three distinct clusters were observed involving 20 patients. Isolates from 17 of these patients were available for testing and were found to be of the same strain (outbreak strain). Further taxonomic analysis indicated that the outbreak strain wasB cepaciacomplex genomovar III. Twelve (71%) of the 17 patients were judged to be infected, and 5 (29%) were colonized with this strain. Six of 200 environmental cultures from multiple sources in the hospital's ICUs yieldedB cepacia.Two of these isolates, both recovered from rooms of colonized patients, were the same genotype as the outbreak strain recovered from patients.Conclusion:Despite an extensive investigation, the source of theB cepaciaclone involved in this outbreak remains unknown. The spatial and temporal pattern of cases suggests that cross-transmission of a genetically related strain contributed to clustering among patients. The initiation of contact isolation may have limited the extent of this transmission. Additional studies are needed to elucidate better the epidemiology of nosocomialB cepaciainfection among non-CF adult patients.

The competitiveness of food companies in national and international markets depends upon their ability to adopt production processes which meet food safety and quality requirements. Food safety and quality assurance affect the cost of carrying out transactions, and therein lies the private incentive for adopting voluntary quality assurance systems. While quality assurance systems have the potential to reduce transaction costs by serving as the seller’s guarantee of safety or quality, they may also serve as trade barriers. © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The long term prospects for cattle farmers in the province of Ontario will depend on their ability to stay competitive in a changing business environment: managing the returns to farm operations will be critical to their long run viability. Focusing on good management practices that reduce operational inefficiencies and that increase gross margins may be the best strategy available to producers for reducing costs and increasing output (Kalirajan, 1981). Such short run management decision making should translate into long run business viability. Groth (1992, p.3) argues that businesses operate under an “operating cycle.” An operating cycle includes the assets, cash, raw materials, work-in-process, finished goods and accounts receivable of the business – with each component varying by type of business. Managed properly the operating cycle is the origin of economic returns to the business operation. Operating cycles are important because: (1) managers can affect the cycle over short time periods – hence, management decisions and actions can yield immediate results; (2) the manager often has the authority to make changes and implement them right away; and (3) greater levels of economic returns can be achieved through effective management which reduce operating risk and lower the cost of capital over the long run. We use contribution margin to measure operational performance of Ontario cow-calf farms for these reasons. We focus on how Ontario beef farmers can improve their operational efficiency by (1) benchmarking their performance against competitors using key performance indicators (KPIs) of effective enterprise management; and (2) understanding the management practices of high margin farms in order to improve industry performance.

The in vivo metabolism of topically applied 14C-permethrin was determined for adults of pyrethroid-resistant and -susceptible horn flies, Haematobia iTTitans (L.), at 1, 2, and 6 h after treatment. At 1 and 2 h after treatment, resistant horn flies had significantly higher internal levels of radioactivity (permethrin plus metabolites) compared with adults of the susceptible strain. Analysis of the internal extracts by thin-layer chromatography indicated no differences in the levels of permethrin. However, significantly higher levels of metabolites that co-chromatograph with 3-(2'- or 4' -hydroxyphenoxy)benzyl ( IRS ) cis / trans- 3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylate at 1 and 2 h after treatment and ( IRS )cis/trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid at 1 h after treatment. These results demonstrate that an enhanced penetration and metabolism are present during the early phases of permethrin intoxication. Enhanced metabolism may contribute to the ability of resistant horn flies to survive in the presence of pyrethroids.

This study investigates the effects of class size, high school accounting, aptitude and attitude on learning , measured by the difference between post-test and pre-test scores, in an undergraduate financial accounting class, after controlling for students' major and semester level. Statistical analysis showed that scores of students in small classes improved by 48%, while scores of students in the large classes improved by 6% percent, implying a decline in learning by 88% by shifting to larger classes. High school accounting was found to improve pre- and post-test scores but the improvement on their post-test scores was significantly lower, implying a diminishing effect of high school accounting on performance as the complexity of the course material increases. We also found that midterm grade (aptitude) and changes in perception about the relevance of the class on business-related issues (attitude) motivate learning.

This study assesses the impacts of BSE crisis on the Canadian economy at the provincial level using an input-output model. The impacts of reductions in exports of beef and cattle on Gross Domestic Product at provincial level, employment, labor income and industrial production are evaluated for Alberta, Ontario, Quebec and Saskatchewan provinces. The results show that a reduction of value of exports by $10 million would reduce average Gross Domestic Product and labor income in above provinces by $8.7 and $3.7 millions. Approximately 145 jobs per province would be lost and industrial production would be reduced by $19.7million. The sizes of the impacts on various industries are different in different provinces reflecting the heterogeneity in intra-industrial linkages among provinces. A reduction in beef exports has significant adverse effects on animal slaughtering, rendering and meat processing, cattle and animal food manufacturing industries while a reduction in cattle exports has significant adverse effects on cattle, feed grain and animal food manufacturing industries in most of the cases.

To date, most research in Europe and the United States has focused on eliciting consumer WTP for biotech foods without directly addressing strategies for marketing them. We use means-end theory to link consumers' knowledge about functional attributes, to their knowledge about consequences and core values, in order to gain insights into valued attributes for developing potential marketing strategies.

The ongoing negotiations in the WTO will most certainly lead to a further liberalization of the global agricultural trade. Related to this, many national governments, including Norway, Switzerland and Japan have placed substantial emphasis on the so-called non-trade concerns. In addition to the production of food and fiber, agriculture also provides or may provide national food security, environmental benefits, and viable rural areas. The term "Multifunctional Agriculture" has been applied to describe these additional functions. In this paper, we will show how the economic concepts of "positive and negative externalities" and "public goods" can be used to analyse non-trade concerns and multifunctionality, especially with reference to agriculture's impact on the environment. We conclude the paper with suggestions for international trade rules that can allow countries to meet domestic environmental policy objectives in a minimally trade-distorting manner.

This paper was presented at the INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS SYMPOSIUM in Auckland, New Zealand, January 18-19, 2001. The Symposium was sponsored by: the International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium, the Venture Trust, Massey University, New Zealand, and the Centre for Applied Economics and Policy Studies, Massey University. Dietary changes, especially in developing countries, are driving a massive increase in demand for livestock products. The objective of this symposium was to examine the consequences of this phenomenon, which some have even called a "revolution." How are dietary patterns changing, and can increased demands for livestock products be satisfied from domestic resources? If so, at what cost? What will be the flow-on impacts, for example, in terms of increased demands for feedgrains and the pressures for change within marketing systems? A supply-side response has been the continued development of large-scale, urban-based industrial livestock production systems that in many cases give rise to environmental concerns. If additional imports seem required, where will they originate and what about food security in the importing regions? How might market access conditions be re-negotiated to make increased imports achievable? Other important issues discussed involved food safety, animal health and welfare and the adoption of biotechnology, and their interactions with the negotiation of reforms to domestic and trade policies. Individual papers from this conference are available on AgEcon Search. If you would like to see the complete agenda and set of papers from this conference, please visit the IATRC Symposium web page at: http://www1.umn.edu/iatrc.intro.htm

The question in the title is divided into: (1) Can we trade the current generation of products from biotech or the technology itself? and (2) Can we trade the future generations of products of the technology? Controversy over the first generation of products has resulted in international trade being segmented into two markets: GMO-free and GMO. The first market is supported by voluntary labelling, making mandatory labelling largely unnecessary. While trade flows have been rearranged, markets have been little affected. We conclude that trade in the future generation will be dominated by capital and technology flows, with production for local markets dominating product trade flows.

This paper describes a robust and quantitative method to separate, purify, and assay the amount of chlorine in fossil fuels using isotope dilution mass spectrometry. The digestion/extraction process uses Carius tubes containing the fossil fuel samples in the presence of HNO3, AgNO3 and a 37Cl spike. The closed system oxidation permits complete equilibration of the sample and spike Cl. The evolved chlorine is trapped as AgCl within the Carius tube, and can then be separated and cleaned. The purified AgCl is also amenable to isotopic analysis by solid or gas source isotope ratio mass spectrometry. For isotope dilution mass spectrometry, the chlorine can be readily measured in a thermal ionization mass spectrometer in a negative ion mode as 37Cl/35Cl ratios with an approximate detection limit (LOD) of 0.3 μg Cl and a precision of 0.2%, relative. This technique may also be used to produce samples suitable for high precision measurements of chlorine isotopic variations in fossil fuels and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Streeter, Sonka, and Hudson (SSH) are to be congratulated on their willingness to address the relationship between information technology, coordination, and competitiveness. Throughout the paper there are nuggets that could be polished and brought to market. Yet, the implicit objective of developing a conceptual framework is still missing. And SSH struggle to enhance the economist's and the agribusiness manager's ability to link a factor (computerized information technology), a process (coordination), with a yet-to-be-well-defined phenomenon (competitiveness). As the authors continue their work in this area, it would be beneficial to start with a theoretical

In a randomized, prospective, double-blind trial, sulbactam/ampicillin was compared with clindamycin in terms of efficacy and safety for the treatment of bacterial infections. Both sulbactam/ampicillin and clindamycin were given with gentamicin when this course was indicated by clinical or laboratory findings. In five patients the site of infection was pleuropulmonary; in 14, bone; in 11, skin and soft tissue; and in one, intraabdominal. The commonest anaerobes isolated were anaerobic cocci and Bacteroides species; the commonest aerobic and facultative bacteria were Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and various gram-positive cocci. All of six assessable patients given sulbactam/ampicillin alone had satisfactory clinical responses, as did seven of nine patients given sulbactam/ampicillin plus gentamicin, all of six patients given clindamycin alone, and six of nine patients given clindamycin plus gentamicin. Pathogens were totally or partially eradicated in four of five, eight of nine, four of five, and three of nine assessable patients given these same regimens. Adverse reactions and laboratory abnormalities were relatively uncommon. Overall, sulbactam/ampicillin was as effective as clindamycin in the treatment of aerobic or mixed aerobic-anaerobic infections; however, the concomitant use of gentamicin was frequently required with both regimens.

This paper presents a model of international rent-seeking activities by producers in both exporting and importing nations. The model is applied to the winter vegetable trade between the United States and Mexico. An analysis is made of the attempts to form export/import coalitions. Reasons for these failures are given. Due to past failures to impede trade, essentially free trade in winter vegetables between the two countries exists.

The influence of domestic agricultural policies on trade in agricultural commodities has been discussed at length by economists. Some have emphasized the interaction of policy-determined residual supplies and demands of all participants in world trade. For example, McCalla concludes, "Therefore, the international market in grains is the interaction of policy-induced residuals from national markets, and the principal objective is to export domestic instability" (McCalla 1980, p. 39). Other analyses have emphasized the role of the United States in world trade. In this context, the United States often has been described as the residual supplier. For example, Kelly Harrison, then general sales manager of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), presented the following view of the United States as the residual supplier

The epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-induced intestinal disease is an intriguing subject about which there are few answers but many remaining questions. Although it is accepted that altered intestinal microecology (usually the result of antimicrobial therapy) is a major predisposition to disease, the details of microbial interactions are not yet known and clearly involve more than simple overgrowth of a resistant member of the resident flora. A variety of reservoirs of C. difficile are recognized. These include endogenous carriage, environmental contamination, and zoonoses, but the relative epidemiologic importance of these varied sources is yet to be determined. Because minor variations in methods for cultivation of C. difficile can markedly affect the ability to detect the organism, even the prevalence of endogenous carriage by various populations is not fully defined. There is good evidence for nosocomial acquisition of disease, but the frequency of this event and the usefulness of preventive measures need to be determined. The development of a typing system would provide a valuable tool for investigating many of the remaining questions. Finally, in addition to the recognized risk factors, which include the apparently predisposing alteration in intestinal microecology and exposure to C. difficile, there appear to be other, as yet undefined, variables that help to determine whether disease will occur. Perhaps the elucidation of the details of the pertinent microbial interactions as well as an understanding of the relevant host-pathogen relationships will provide important insights into the epidemiology of C. difficile-induced disease.

Cefixime, a broad-spectrum, orally active cephalosporin, was more active in vitro than ampicillin, cefaclor, cephalothin, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole against 194 nosocomial pathogens of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Activity was especially good against Klebsiella spp, Proteus spp, Serratia spp, and Providencia stuartii. Although gentamicin had equivalent or better activity against Citrobacter spp, Enterobacter spp, Escherichia coli, and Morganella morganii, all 23 of the gentamicin-resistant strains studied were susceptible to Cefixime. Isolates tested were from urinary tract infections, abdominal infections, wounds, vascular infections, and respiratory infections; they were sequentially collected nosocomial pathogens from a single institution. This orally active cephalosporin should be considered for therapy of a variety of nosocomial infections involving gram-negative bacillary pathogens.

A model was developed to assess recent effects of exchange rate changes, inflation, and price insulation policies on real U.S. commodity prices. Exchange rate effects are defined so that they can occur and be significant under either fixed or floating rate regimes. The results indicate exchange rate effects on real U.S. commodity prices are smallest under free trade and real commodity price insulation policies but rise substantially as nominal price insulation policies become more prevalent.

In his comment, Becker has chosen to focus on only one of several sections in our paper, the analysis of the implication of institutional (IR) and project funding (PR) for the average researcher. Becker accomplishes two things. First, he greatly complicates the simple model upon which our analysis was based. Second, he reminds us that a complicated model may not lead to the crisp, clean, and certain conclusions of a simple model. But the real questions are (a) whether the more complicated model offers more insights than the simple model, and (b) whether the issues raised by alternative research management schemes are understood better through his model or ours. First, we review our model and the contribution of that model to our paper. Second, we analyze the sensitivity of the results of our model to the assumptions of Becker's analysis. Finally, we evaluate the contribution of Becker's model, relative to our model, to the understanding of alternative research management schemes.

Johnson and Tweeten (1967, 1977) have provided estimates of the elasticity of export demand for specific agricultural commodities and aggregate agricultural exports. These estimates indicate the aggregate export demand for U.S. agricultural commodities is very elastic with respect to price, and the estimated elasticity is somewhat greater than 6.0 in both cases. The elasticities of export demand for specific commodities are also very large, ranging from -2.8 for soybeans to 10.18 for feed grains (Johnson). Theoretically, the elasticity of export demand may be quite large. However, the Johnson-Tweeten estimates do not consider government policies which insulate domestic producers and consumers from external price fluctuations. In order to study the effect of these policies on the elasticity of export demand, we (a) examine the formulation of the elasticity of export demand and the implication of price insulation policies, (b) review the trade policies of major importers and competing exporters, and (c) calculate the export demand elasticities for major agricultural commodities which incorporate price insulation policies. These export demand elasticities are much smaller than those of Johnson and

Clostridium difficile has been shown to be a cause of antimicrobial agent-associated diarrhea and colitis. The source from which this organism gains access to the gastrointestinal tract is not known. Cultures of the hospital environments of six of eight patients whose fecal cultures were positive for C. difficile yielded this organism, whereas cultures of control hospital sites were almost invariably negative. These data suggest that hospital environmental contamination may be a potential source of infection. Further studies are needed to determine the role of various possible sources of C. difficile in human diarrheal disease.