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Damian Czarnecki,1 Marcin Ziółkowski,1 Jan Chodkiewicz,2 Marta Gorzkiewicz,3 Napoleon Waszkiewicz,4 Anna Długosz,5 Jacek Budzyński,6 Anna Junkiert-Czarnecka,7 Agnieszka Kułak-Bejda4 1Department of Preventive Nursing, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland; 2Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychopathology, Institute of Psychology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; 3Department of Molecular Genetics and Justice, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland; 4Department of Psychiatry, Medical University, Białystok, Poland; 5University of Technology and Life Sciences, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Bydgoszcz, Poland; 6Department of Vascular and Internal Diseases, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland; 7Department of Clinical Genetics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, PolandCorrespondence: Damian Czarnecki, Email czarneckidamian@cm.umk.plPurpose: The aim of this study was to assess changes in the severity of alcohol craving according to allelic variants of the 5-HTTLPR gene polymorphism during hospitalisation and their association with selected clinical variables in alcohol-dependent patients.Patients and Methods: The study is exploratory. Participants were investigated at the 2nd and 6th week of alcohol-dependence therapy in the addiction treatment unit. Recruitment was conducted among alcohol-dependent patients from several Polish drug treatment centres. The total sample size was 130 persons (12 females and 118 males). Study subjects’ mean age was 43.0 years. Patients were investigated twice by using the Penn Alcohol Craving Scale (PACS) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and once by using Short Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire (SADD) and taking a swab for genetic testing. The polymorphism of the gene encoding the serotonin transporter 5-HTTLPR (SLC6A4) was determined from isolated DNA and its homozygous variants of short/short or long/long alleles and heterozygous short/long alleles were analysed.Results: At 6th week of the follow-up, there was a decrease in the severity of alcohol craving in half of subjects with the short/short allele (p = 0.033) and in one-fifth of subjects with the long/short allele (p = 0.002) of the 5-HTTLPR gene. In subjects with long/long allele of the 5-HTTLPR gene, there was no change in the severity of alcohol craving between 2nd and 6th weeks of the study (p = 0.242).Conclusion: There was no statistical influence of the homozygous long allele of the 5-HTTLPR gene on severity of alcohol craving during 6 weeks of rehab hospitalisation in comparison to not homozygous and homozygous short alleles. The s-allele was associated with decrease of alcohol craving. It may point on the potential need for differentiated rehabilitation methods depending on the genetic diversity of addicted patients and its role in the severity of alcohol craving.Keywords: 5-HTTLPR polymorphism, alcohol craving, alcohol dependence

AimTo identify the distinguishing characteristics of alcohol dependent patients who confuse alcohol cravings with pre-meal hunger.MethodsData were collected at interview on sociodemographic status, clinical status and anthropometry in 179 patients (163 men and 16 women) undergoing in-patient treatment for alcohol dependence.ResultsA comparison of the patient subgroups studied showed that patients who did not confuse, and those who did confuse, alcohol craving with pre-meal hunger differed significantly in terms of alcohol craving scale scores (9 vs. 4 points). Patients confusing alcohol cravings with pre-meal hunger were more likely to recognize that experiencing severe pre-meal hunger can cause relapse (67.9 vs. 22.8%) and that not being able to distinguish between the sensations under study also increases the risk of breaking abstinence (75.0% vs. 50.4%). This was independent of severity of dependence and intensity of recent alcohol consumption.ConclusionsAlcohol-dependent persons who confuse alcohol craving with pre-meal hunger differ from those who do not confuse these hunger pangs in terms of feeling stronger alcohol craving and more frequent occurrence of symptoms accompanying the feeling of alcohol craving during pre-meal hunger. At the start of treatment for alcohol withdrawal, alcohol-dependent individuals who report confusing alcohol cravings with pre-meal hunger are less confident of maintaining abstinence. This is relevant to treatment. The role of possible confounders (depressive symptoms, cognitive and educational deficiency) could not be elucidated definitively.

Przezczaszkowa stymulacja magnetyczna (ang. transcranial magnetic stimulation – TMS) jest rozwijaną od lat osiemdziesiątych dwudziestego wieku metodą nieinwazyjnej stymulacji mózgu. TMS serią bodźców (ang. repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation – rTMS) jest odmianą tej metody, wykorzystywaną coraz szerzej w leczeniu zaburzeń psychicznych. Od kilku lat, obserwuje się w Polsce wzrost liczby ośrodków oferujących terapię z użyciem rTMS oraz coraz większe zainteresowanie pacjentów leczeniem tą metodą. Obecny artykuł prezentuje stanowisko grupy roboczej powołanej przez Sekcję Psychiatrii Biologicznej Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychiatrycznego, dotyczące kwalifikacji chorych i bezpieczeństwa stosowania TMS w leczeniu zaburzeń psychicznych. Lekarze i personel techniczny powinni,przed rozpoczęciem używania TMS, odbyć staż w ośrodku posiadającym odpowiednie doświadczenie. Aparatura do stymulacji powinna posiadać wymagane certyfikaty bezpieczeństwa. Głównym, psychiatrycznym wskazaniem do stymulacji pozostaje depresja, włącznie z depresją lekooporną. Istniejący stan wiedzy pozwala także stosować rTMS w leczeniu zaburzeń obsesyjno-kompulsyjnych, negatywnych objawów schizofrenii, omamów słuchowych w przebiegu schizofrenii, uzależnienia od palenia tytoniu, zaburzeń poznawczych i zaburzeń behawioralnych w przebiegu choroby Alheimera oraz zespołu stresu pourazowego. Siła bodźców stymulujących i dozowanie stymulacji powinny opierać się na zaleceniach opublikowanych przez Międzynarodową Federację Neurofizjologii Klinicznej. Głównymi przeciwwskazaniami, mogącymi skutkować dyskwalifikacją chorego z terapii pozostają obecność metalowych elementów w ciele, a zwłaszcza elektronicznych urządzeń medycznych w pobliżu cewki stymulującej, padaczka, zaburzenia słuchu, zmiany strukturalne w obrębie mózgu, potencjalnie związane z obecnością ognisk padaczkorodnych, przyjmowanie leków obniżających próg drgawkowy oraz ciąża. Artykuł wymienia także główne działania niepożądane jak indukcja napadu padaczkowego, omdlenia, ból i dyskomfort w trakcie stymulacji oraz wywołanie epizodu hipomanii lub manii z opisem odpowiedniego postępowania.

Celem prezentowanego studium przypadku jest analiza funkcji wirtualnych grup, do których logowała się, przechodziła i uznawała za cybernetyczny tymczasowy adres młoda kobieta zaangażowana w samookaleczenia w trakcie procesu psychoterapii psychoanalitycznej. Wykorzystano w tym celu metodę studium przypadku. Uzyskane dane wskazują, że samookaleczenia i równoległe cyberspołeczeństwa pełniły tę samą funkcję. Były obiektami przejściowymi. Stąd można wyciągnąć wniosek, że cyberspołeczności służyły młodej kobiecie jako społeczność terapeutyczna. Związek między samookaleczaniem a wykorzystywaniem cybergrup potwierdza się jako rekonfiguracja społeczności terapeutycznej i niektórych poziomów funkcji ego.

It is estimated that the prevalence of depression throughout life ranges from 14.4% to 18% of the population and affects women twice as often as men. In 2019, symptoms that may indicate de-pression affected 19.2% of women, which was characteristic for all age groups. The group of women in 2019 less often (13.2%) experienced symptoms that may indicate depression than five years ago (18.7%), in 2014. The paper reviews the available literature on depression in women. The results are discussed in a sub-chapter: Intro-duction, Epidemiology of depression in Poland, Epidemiology of depression in women, Selected clinical aspects of depression in women, Depres-sion in the menopause, Postpartum depres-sion,Summary.

Depression in childhood and adolescence is still less well known than depression in adults. The term "childhood and adolescent depression" for depression in childhood and adolescence was not used until 1966 and was studied in these age groups mainly by psychoanalysts, psychiatrists and developmental psychologists. Unfortunately, the results of their research are not homogeneous, but they show that it increases with age. Juvenile depression is a separate symptom that includes mood disorders, behavioral disorders, anxiety and self-destructive behavior. It differs from adult depression in terms of its course, and it lasts shorter and has a duration a different psychopathological picture. In the article, the available literature was reviewed and, based on the results obtained, the problem was developed in division into sections: epidemiology, etiopatogenesis, clinical grounds, socialmedia and depression.

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder with a complex etiopathogenesis explained by several still developing theories. Knowledge of these theories can matter when choosing the right treatment, because it increases the chance of therapeutic success. Various strategies are currently being developed so that we can, to some extent, adapt therapy to the individual needs of patients and, thus, optimize the therapeutic effect and minimize side effects. The issue of personalization of therapy translates into better cooperation between the doctor and the patient. The involvement of both parts in the treatment process, as in the treatment of other mental disorders, is crucial for its effectiveness. The therapeutic methods that we have at our disposal are still not producing satisfactory results in reducing the negative symptoms or cognitive disorders that occur in schizophrenia. Currently, not only the development of psychiatry but also development of certain branches of science related to medicine, such as pharmacogenetics and molecular biology, can contribute to achieving satisfactory research results. It therefore seems reasonable to seek new treatment strategies. A brief presentation of the most promising therapeutic methods is the aim of this literature review. It covers pharmacological treatment (cariprazine, lurasidone, lumateperone, paliperidone), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), psychotherapy and cognitive enhancement therapy (CET). The issue of pharmacogenetics of schizophrenia was also raised.

BACKGROUND Neurodegenerative and mental disorders significantly affect the manner of speaking, syntax, semantics and specific habits of word choice. Linguistic analysis can detect these disorders. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to examine whether speech analysis can be useful for screening test in neurology and psychiatry, due to the limited number of techniques supporting medical diagnostics in these fields. There is a need for a fast, low-cost method for analysing speech samples provided over the phone or as transcripts over the Internet. METHODS Comparing lemma frequencies in the control group recordings with lemma frequencies in speech of people diagnosed with dementia or depression allowed us to select lemmas that appear too rarely or too frequently in the speech of people affected by disorders. Moreover, the ratio of the number of lemmas to the number of words is a very good indicator of dementia. RESULTS For neurodegenerative and mental disorders, linguistic analysis frequently results in a more effective diagnosis than analysis of acoustic features. Linguistic changes are easily detectable in dementia, and less noticeable in depressions. By comparing features of speech samples, it was possible to create a classifier which distinguishes one group from the other. We used linguistic analysis to build a system for providing screening tests. Two methods were used to diagnose dementia. The first method is based on the observation that statements made by people with dementia have lower vocabulary variations. The percentage of lemmas (in relation to the number of words) makes it possible to detect dementia states. The second diagnostic method is based on lemma probabilities. This method was also used in depression screening tests. CONCLUSIONS By knowing features of speech samples recorded by the subjects and the control group, it is possible to create a classifier which distinguishes one group of recordings from the other. Linguistic changes are easily detectable in dementia, and less noticeable in depression. CLINICALTRIAL Trial Registration CT03197363; https://clinicaltrials.gov

Aim of the studyThe aim of this research was to assess the impact of nutraceutical intake on the mental condition of patients affected by depression and schizophrenia.Subject or material and methodsThe research covered a group of 156 patients with depression and 116 patients with schizophrenia ranging in age from 18 to 65 years. The clinical condition of the patients was assessed on the basis of: the age of onset, average number of episodes per year of the disease and the average duration of the disease. A quantitative assessment of diet by means of a 24-hour dietary recall was carried out.ResultsIt was stated that choline was a nutritional factor that has a significant impact on the clinical condition of depression. The study also revealed that the nutritional factors having a significant impact on the reduction of the number of schizophrenia episodes are: tyrosine, vitamin B1, B9, magnesium and copper, whereas the increase in the number of episodes was related to phenylalanine intake.Discussionit can be stated that nutritional factors may contribute to the aggravation of both assessed disorders and for that reason nutritional advice should be provided for these groups of patients.ConclusionsPatients with mental disorders require individual nutritional education and control over the nutrient intake in their diet and their concentration in the blood serum. If the patient is unable to balance their diet, supplementation with proper preparations should be considered.

Depression is recognized as one of the major mental illnesses. It often coexists with obesity, insulin resistance and related dietary conditions. There are many underlying causes of these conditions and one of them can be pharmacotherapy, used to treat depression. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effect of pharmacotherapy on body composition of patients suffering from depression and the quantity and quality of food consumed by these individuals. This study involved 107 depressed patients, 32 of which were men treated with SSRI’s and SNRI’s and 75 were women treated with SNRI’s, NaSSA’s and SSRI’s. The test group was divided according to gender and the type of pharmacotherapy. The control group included 42 men and 62 women without any psychiatric treatment. All participants completed a questionnaire concerning their current diet and relevant medical history. Body composition was analysed using the BIA method. Data were analysed using Chi squared, Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis tests and Spearman's rank correlation, where appropriate. Evaluation of the diet of depressed patients did not show any significant deviation from the recommended norms for consumption and the diet of the control group. However, in the group of men, BMI levels, waist circumference and SAT fatty tissue content depended on the calorific content of the diet and nutrient supply which correlated with SNRI treatment. In the group of women, treatment had little effect on calorific content of the chosen diet and nutrient intake, although significant differences in body composition were found, mainly among patients treated with NaSSA. Increased content of adipose tissue or higher BMI in men treated with SSRI’s may suggest that pharmacotherapy has a significant impact on the development of obesity and its complications in depressed individuals.

Niemożność mówienia w pewnych sytuacjach − tak najkrócej można scharakteryzować mutyzm wybiórczy (ang. Selective mutism, SM), który według najnowszych klasyfikacji (DSM-V, ICD-11) należy do spektrum zaburzeń lękowych. Pojawienie się mutyzmu wybiórczego w okresie wczesnodziecięcym może zaburzać dalszy rozwój, a także niekorzystnie wpływać na osiągnięcia edukacyjne. Zarówno psychiatrzy, jak i lekarze innych specjalizacji, logopedzi, pielęgniarki i nauczyciele powinni posiadać odpowiednią wiedzę na temat tego zaburzenia, ponieważ wcześnie podjęte leczenie wiąże się z lepszym rokowaniem. Celem niniejszego przeglądu literatury jest przybliżenie współczesnego spojrzenia na stosunkowo rzadki zespół psychopatologiczny jakim jest mutyzm wybiórczy. W świetle najnowszych badań dotyczących etiologii SM sam objaw mutyzmu wydaje się być jedynie wykładnikiem kryjącej się pod nim heterogennej grupy zaburzeń. Opierając się na psychopatologii rozwoju można wnioskować, że wzajemne powiązania między piętrzącymi się nieprawidłowościami sprzyjają ujawnieniu się SM w przełomowym okresie życia. Złożoność etiologiczna sugeruje multimodalne podejście do pacjenta w procesie diagnostyczno-terapeutycznym, co jest postulowane przez wielu autorów.

Clinically overt depression is associated with an increased risk for insulin resistance. Data regarding the impact of subclinical depressive symptoms on the risk of diabetes are limited.The study aimed to assess the relationship of subclinical depressive symptoms with body fat distribution and diabetes risk in women.The analysis included 250 women, 68 with subclinical depressive symptoms and 182 controls. A clinical examination, oral glucose tolerance test, and lipid and liver enzyme level assessments were performed. Body composition was estimated by dual‑energy X‑ray absorptiometry. The participants completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) questionnaire.The women with subclinical depressive symptoms had higher visceral adipose tissue (VAT) mass than the control group. The groups did not differ in the body mass index, waist circumference, total fat, fat‑free, android, and gynoid fat mass. Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA‑IR) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity were higher in the women with subclinical depressive symptoms than in the control group. In the women with subclinical depressive symptoms, we observed a positive correlation between the severity of somatic‑vegetative symptoms reported in the BDI and VAT mass, HOMA‑IR, and gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT) activity. Dysglycemia occurred more frequently in the women with subclinical depressive symptoms. In a subgroup analysis of postmenopausal women, the individuals with subclinical depressive symptoms had higher HOMA‑IR, GGT, ALT, and triglyceride / high‑density lipoprotein cholesterol ratios than the control group.Subclinical depressive symptoms in women might predispose to dysglycemia.

IntroductionPeople recently or currently in forced quarantine or isolation at home have shown high levels of depression and symptoms of generalized anxiety.Aim of the StudyTo assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on certain aspects of people's day-to-day functioning.Materials and MethodsThe study involved using an online diagnostic survey including a proprietary questionnaire, the DASS 21, and the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.ResultsInformation about the pandemic in Poland and around the world was systematically obtained by 48.8 and 27.4% of respondents, respectively (N = 1,312). Whereas, 75.6% of respondents declared having knowledge about the number of infected people in Poland, only 28.7% declared having such knowledge about infections worldwide. Most often, respondents had obtained information online (65.9%). According to 45.7% of respondents, infection with COVID-19 is a major threat, and not enough has been done to reduce its spread in Poland (66.7%) or worldwide (56.1%). Respondents considered social distancing (68.3%), quarantining people arriving from abroad (63.4%), and wearing protective masks and/or gloves (60.4%) to be the most effective actions for combatting the pandemic. Most often, in compulsory quarantines, respondents surfed the Internet (48.8%) and experienced a lack of energy or fatigue (40.2%) and anxiety (54.9%). The severity of anxiety (mean = 4.6 points), stress (7.5 points), and depression (7.3 points) were within normal ranges, and the respondents could generally be included in the group showing mildly severe social phobia (57.9 points).ConclusionsMost respondents considered infection with COVID-19 to be a major threat and feared another quarantine. During quarantine, respondents most often experienced fatigue, a lack of energy, nervousness, anxiety, anger, and sadness. Despite demonstrating anxiety, stress, and depression with severity in the normal range, respondents showed no statistically significant correlation between severity and age, gender, place of residence, or level of education. Although they also showed mildly severe social phobia, only gender, not age, place of residence, or level of education, showed a statistically significant correlation with its severity.

Background. Finding the associations between schizophrenia symptoms and the biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress and the kynurenine pathway may lead to the individualization of treatment and increase its effectiveness. Methods. The study group included 82 schizophrenia inpatients. The Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale (PANSS), the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia (BACS) and the Calgary Depression in Schizophrenia Scale were used for symptom evaluation. Biochemical analyses included oxidative stress parameters and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Results. Linear models revealed the following: (1) malondiadehyde (MDA), N-formylkynurenine (N-formKYN), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), advanced glycation end-products of proteins (AGE) and total oxidative status (TOS) levels are related to the PANSS-total score; (2) MDA, reduced glutathione (GSH) and BDNF levels are related to the PANSS-negative score; (3) TOS and kynurenine (KYN) levels are related to the PANSS-positive score; (4) levels of total antioxidant status (TAS) and AOPP along with the CDSS score are related to the BACS-total score; (5) TAS and N-formKYN levels are related to the BACS-working memory score. Conclusions. Oxidative stress biomarkers may be associated with the severity of schizophrenia symptoms in positive, negative and cognitive dimensions. The identification of biochemical markers associated with the specific symptom clusters may increase the understanding of biochemical profiles in schizophrenia patients.

The harmful use of alcohol is responsible for 5.1% of the global burden of disease, and the early detection of alcohol problems may prevent its development and progression. Therefore, the aim of the study is to review traditional and new biomarkers associated with alcohol use. The nature and practical application and limitations of alcohol biomarkers in the diagnosis and monitoring of drinking are reviewed. Despite the limited specificity and sensitivity in alcohol drinking detection, traditional biomarkers are useful in clinical practice, and new generations of biomarkers, e.g., proteomic markers, are in need of further investigation. Traditional biomarkers are broadly available and cost-efficient, providing valuable data on the complications of drinking and prognosis, as well as on concurrent conditions affected by drinking. The most important challenge in the future will be to translate methodically advanced methods of detecting alcohol markers into simpler and cheaper methods. Larger population studies are also needed to test the usefulness of these potential markers of alcohol use.

Depression (MDD) is a leading psychiatric entity worldwide, with a high impact on individual life and public health. In recent years, efforts have been made to elucidate its biological underpinnings. MDD biomarker research provides promise for a better understanding of the biochemical processes involved in its pathogenesis. Oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) and lipid disturbances are reported as major factors favoring the occurrence of depression. A total of 29 patients with MDD and 30 healthy volunteers were examined using the Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-D), the Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAM-A), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Blood and urine were collected to search for potential MDD biomarkers. O&NS parameters and β-amyloid were assessed in the urine, while cholesterol fractions were assessed in the blood. The group of depressed patients was characterized by higher concentrations of urine superoxide dismutase (SOD), 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH), tryptophan (TRY), and serum triglycerides (TGA), along with lower levels of serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Elevated urine 3-NT and decreased serum HDL, considered together, were found to have the greatest potential as markers of depression. The study supports the importance of oxidative stress and cholesterol disturbances in MDD. Further research is required to assess their clinical usefulness as markers.

In alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS), pathophysiological mechanisms cover acid-base disturbances that affect the clinical picture of this state. An earlier study found that oxygen therapy methods in combination with pharmacotherapy improved the cognitive state in persons suffering from AWS. As impairments in the acid-base state influence the general health, timely and effective correction of these acid-base disturbances could result in a potential improvement in the treatment of the alcohol withdrawal symptoms. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of non-compressed oxygen therapy (NOT) and hyperbaric oxygenation (HBO) in combination with standard drug therapy (SDT), based on the dynamics of the acid-base state (ABS) in blood during AWS. HBO is the use of oxygen under pressure, whereas NOT uses oxygen without pressure. A comparative assessment of the acid-base state biomarkers was made in 160 patients with a moderate alcohol withdrawal state (3 groups), namely, in patients who underwent SDT only (control group/CG; n = 42) and two comparison groups who underwent SDT in combination with NOT (SG1 group; n = 56) and HBO (SG2 group; n = 62). The use of both oxygen therapy methods (i.e., NOT and HBO) in combination with SDT corrected the ABS in a shorter time and more effectively, which was due to the better restoration of the carbonate buffer system. Although we did not find proof that novel oxygen-related therapeutic procedures such as NOT and HBO in combination with SDT improved the alcohol withdrawal symptoms, it helped with the faster restoration of the acid-base state.

Pro/antioxidant imbalance has been reported in schizophrenia (SZ). However, the results of studies are inconsistent and usually do not include other factors that are highly affected by oxidative stress (OS).This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the serum levels of OS markers and their potential connection with schizophrenia. The total sample comprised 147: 98 individuals with SZ −47 first-episode (FS) and 49 chronic patients (CS)—and 49 healthy individuals (HC) as a control group. The examination included clinical variables and serum levels of antioxidants and oxidative damage products. The significant changes were observed in concentrations of all examined markers, without any specific direction of the pro/antioxidant balance shift between SZ and HC. In the regression model adjusted for cofounders, catalase: OR = 0.81 (95%CI: 0.74–0.88); glutathione peroxidase: OR = 1.06 (95%CI: 1.02–1.10); total antioxidant capacity: OR = 0.85 (95%CI: 0.75–0.98); oxidative stress index: OR = 1.25 (95%CI: 1.03–1.52); ferric reducing ability of plasma: OR = 0.79 (95%CI: 0.69–0.89); advanced glycation end products: OR = 1.03 (95%CI: 1.01–1.04); and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP): OR = 1.05 (95%CI: 1.03–1.07) turned out to be significant predictors of schizophrenia. In the multiple stepwise regression model, pro/antioxidant status and their interaction with the duration of illness-related factors affected schizophrenia symptoms: positive symptoms (FRAPxKYN), negative (DITYR, FRAP, CAT), general (KYN), and over-all psychopathology (KYNxNFK). The results confirm differences in serum levels of oxidative biomarkers between SZ patients and healthy individuals. The pro/antioxidant status could be considered a predictor of schizophrenia and the factor affects patients' symptom severity.

A 39-year-old, previously healthy, white male with no personal or family history of mental illness presented with new, first-time psychotic symptoms. The new psychotic symptoms appeared on patient admission to the hospital, occurring during a diagnosis of symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. On the first day of hospitalization for worsening psychotic symptoms and the appearance of aggression toward the staff, the patient was transferred to the psychiatric hospital. After the initial treatment with antipsychotics and benzodiazepines, his mental condition improved. The patient was then transferred for further treatment of his somatic condition in the internal medicine ward, with a recommendation to continue treatment in the psychiatric ward once his somatic condition was stabilized. This is one of the few reported cases of COVID-19-related psychosis in a patient without a personal or family history; moreover, this description contains important data regarding elevated IL-6, which may prove to be a key factor in the induction of new psychotic symptoms. It indicates the important need for careful monitoring of neuropsychiatric symptoms among COVID-19 patients.

On September 30, 2019, the editorial debate of the quarterly “Neuropsychiatry. Clinical Review” took place in Warsaw, dedicated to the possibilities of implementing the harm reduction programs in nicotine addiction. The scientific organizer was the Polish Neuropsychiatric Association. The publication is the result of this meeting. The debate was to establish the status praesens, to review research analyses and understand controversies, as well as to outline the perspectives of practical implementation of harm reduction programs. In addition, the possibilities of legal changes and new medical standards were indicated. Smoking is the most important, modifiable, cause of many diseases and premature mortality. Tobacco smokers become addicted not only to nicotine, but also to other substances included in cigarette smoke. Addiction is also influenced by cultural and social factors. A number of new tobacco products that do not work by smoking have a 90–95% reduction of toxic ingredients comparing to the composition of cigarette smoke. While lowering level of carcinogens is obviously beneficial, the long-term effects of these new products have not yet been established. The low effectiveness of the available methods of pharmacotherapy for nicotine addiction creates premises for the implementation of harm reduction programs using new products with modified risk. Such concepts are supported by state regulators in developed countries, creating special registration paths, taking into account the fact that the toxicity of new products is reduced. Precedent registrations of the products with reduced risk of harm (FDA, USA) create conditions to replace pragmatically smoking tobacco products – with other, less harmful ones.

Serum aspartate, alanine aminotransferases (AST, ALT), and plasma carnitine are all indirect biomarkers of alcohol abuse. Carnitine transfers long-chain fatty acids from cytoplasm to mitochondria for β-oxidation. The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between daily alcohol intake, time of alcohol dependence, plasma carnitine, and serum aminotransferases.We studied 26 men who were addicted for 2-30 years, consuming ethanol from 75 to 700 g/day (alcoholic group), as well as 17 healthy men (control group).In alcoholics, compared to the controls, we found: a significant increase in serum: AST (p = 0.0014), ALT (p = 0.0071), AST/ALT ratio (p 0.000); significantly lower plasma free carnitine (FC) (p = 0.0316) and total carnitine (TC) (p = 0.0349); and a significant negative correlation between FC (r = -0.6200; RIn the alcoholic group, there was an increase in serum activity of AST, ALT, and AST/ALT ratio that confirms liver injury. In addition, we found low plasma FC and TC, which may indicate damage to mitochondrial β-oxidation caused by alcohol metabolites. The significantly higher plasma FC and TC in patients consuming the most, compared to patients consuming smaller doses of alcohol, may be caused by a lower carnitine demand of injured liver cells, decreased urinary carnitine excretion by impaired renal tubules, and leakage of carnitine into the blood from damaged muscles by the higher quantities of alcohol. The negative correlation between carnitine concentration and time of alcohol dependence may suggest the potential use of carnitine for treatment of alcohol abuse.

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Cel pracy. Celem pracy była ocena realizacji dobowego zapotrzebowania na energię i wybrane składniki pokarmowe w diecie kobiet z rozpoznaniem schizofrenii w zależności od stopnia odżywienia badanych, ocenianego na podstawie wybranych parametrów antropometrycznych i metabolicznych.MetodaBadaniem objęto 102 kobiety (50 z rozpoznaniem schizofrenii i 52 zdrowych ochotniczek). W ocenie ilościowej żywienia wykorzystano 24-godzinny wywiad żywieniowy. W ocenie stanu odżywienia wykorzystano pomiary antropometryczne, biochemiczne i analizę składu ciała.WynikiRacje pokarmowe badanych pacjentek z rozpoznaniem schizofrenii cechowały się istotnie wyższą podażą kwasów tłuszczowych nasyconych oraz niższą witaminy C, B12, folianów i sodu w porównaniu z osobami zdrowymi. Jednocześnie odnotowano, iż racje pokarmowe pacjentek z obu grup dostarczały w zbyt niskiej ilości wielonienasyconych kwasów tłuszczowych, witaminy D, folianów, potasu, wapnia, żelaza oraz błonnika pokarmowego. Tłuszczowa masa ciała ogółem kobiet ze schizofrenią korelowała istotnie z podażą nasyconych kwasów tłuszczowych natomiast zawartość tkanki tłuszczowej wisceralnej korelowała znamiennie z podażą węglowodanów, a zawartość tkanki tłuszczowej podskórnej z podażą tłuszczu ogółem i nasyconych kwasów tłuszczowych.WnioskiSposób żywienia kobiet z rozpoznaniem schizofrenii nie odbiegał od żywienia osób zdrowych, aczkolwiek popełniane błędy żywieniowe sugerują aby leczenie żywieniowe pacjentów dobierane było w sposób indywidualny, po przeprowadzeniu szczegółowego wywiadu żywieniowego.

A growing interest in the usability of saliva has been observed recently. Using saliva as a diagnostic material is possible because it contains a varied range of composites, organic and inorganic like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which are secreted into saliva. Moreover, this applies to drugs and their metabolites. Saliva collection is noninvasive, and self-collection is possible. There is a lack of risk of injuries related to injection with needle, and it is generally safe. Human saliva has been successfully used, for example, in the diagnosis of many systemic diseases like cancers, autoimmunological diseases, infectious diseases (HIV, hepatitis, and malaria), and endocrinological diseases, as well as diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Also, it is used in toxicological diagnostics, drug monitoring, and forensic medicine. The usefulness of saliva as a biological marker has also been extended to psychiatry. The specificity of mental illness and patients limits or prevents cooperation and diagnosis. In many cases, the use of saliva as a marker seems to be the most sensible choice.

Purpose Investigation of the longitudinal effect of schizophrenia on changes in various brain-metabolite levels and their relationships with cognitive deficits that have not been fully explained yet. Methods Five years subsequent to their first examination for their first episode of schizophrenia, eleven patients from an original group of 30 were reexamined. Their cognitive functions were assessed with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Magnetic resonance imaging and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy were performed on a 1.5 T scanner. Voxels of 8 cm3 were positioned in the left frontal lobe, left temporal lobe, and the left thalamus. The study had a naturalistic design, and patients were treated with various antipsychotics. Results No significant statistical differences between the baseline and follow-up in N-acetylaspartate (NAA:creatine plus phosphocreatine [Cr] and NAA/H2O) levels were observed in any region of interest. We found a significant statistical correlation between 5-year difference in frontal NAA/Cr levels and duration of the last antipsychotic treatment in this period (R=0.908, P=0.012). We found a trend (P=0.068) toward lower choline-containing compounds (Cho/Cr ratio) in the temporal lobe over 5 years and a trend (P=0.079) in higher glutamate-glutamine- GABA (Glx/H2O) levels in the left thalamus. The patients showed social and clinical improvement at follow-up examination, and there were no changes in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test results. Conclusion The observed tendency toward decline in choline ratio might have been due to decreased temporal cell density or impaired neuron-membrane or myelin functions. A tendency for higher Glx levels suggest the involvement of thalamus dysfunction in the chronic schizophrenia process. The lack of NAA decrease might have been due to effective antipsychotic treatment. Further longitudinal studies on large patient groups are required to confirm these metabolic changes in schizophrenia.

For 2.5 years we have been facing the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and its health, social and economic effects. One of its known consequences is the development of neuropsychiatric diseases such as anxiety and depression. However, reports of manic episodes related to COVID-19 have emerged. Mania is an integral part of the debilitating illness—bipolar disorder (BD). Due to its devastating effects, it is therefore important to establish whether SARS-CoV-2 infection is a causative agent of this severe mental disorder. In this narrative review, we discuss the similarities between the disorders caused by SARS-CoV-2 and those found in patients with BD, and we also try to answer the question of whether SARS-CoV-2 infection may be a risk factor for the development of this affective disorder. Our observation shows that disorders in COVID-19 showing the greatest similarity to those in BD are cytokine disorders, tryptophan metabolism, sleep disorders and structural changes in the central nervous system (CNS). These changes, especially intensified in severe infections, may be a trigger for the development of BD in particularly vulnerable people, e.g., with family history, or cause an acute episode in patients with a pre-existing BD.

The toxic properties of ethanol are inextricably linked to oxidative stress. Despite many reports on the effects of alcohol dependence on blood redox homeostasis, there are no data on the oxidative stress profile in alcohol-poisoned cases. There are also no data on the diagnostic usefulness of redox biomarkers determined post-mortem in various biological fluids. This work investigates the utility of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant barrier, redox status, and oxidative/nitrosative stress biomarkers in different biological fluids (such as blood, urine, vitreous humor, and cerebrospinal fluid) in the post-mortem study of patients with acute alcohol intoxication. The study group included those who died due to acute ethanol intoxication (n = 22). The research showed a significant increase in glutathione peroxidase activity, total antioxidant status, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and tryptophan concentration only in the study group’s urine compared to the control. In other circulating fluids, both antioxidant enzyme activities and glycoxidation product concentrations were not significantly different in individuals who died of alcohol overdose compared with those who died suddenly. We also did not observe a connection between oxidation–reduction balance and the amount of alcohol consumed before death. These unexpected observations may be caused by irreversible post-mortem changes occurring at the cellular level due to autolysis and putrefaction. In summary, the use of circulating body fluids to assess redox homeostasis is limited in the post-mortem analysis. Our results indicate the increased stability of urine collected post mortem compared to other circulating bioliquids. Further studies are needed to assess the intensity of oxidative and carbonyl stress in ethanol-damaged organs and the effects of post-mortem processes on cellular redox balance.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is associated with the deposition of β-amyloid in the brain. AD accounts for over 50% of cases of dementia which results from disturbances in redox homeostasis. Indeed, increased intensity of protein oxidation and nitration as well as lipid peroxidation is observed in brain areas with considerable amounts of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. However, little is known about the oxidoreductive balance of salivary glands in AD patients. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant barrier and oxidative/nitrosative stress biomarkers in stimulated saliva and blood of AD patients. The study was participated by 25 AD patients and 25 non-demented controls without neurological diseases or cognitive impairment, matched by age and gender to the study group. The number of patients was determined based on a previous pilot study (test power = 0.9). We found a significant decrease in the activity of erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), increased activity of catalase (CAT) and reduced concentration of plasma non-enzymatic antioxidants (uric acid, UA and reduced glutathione, GSH). In contrast, in the stimulated saliva of AD patients we observed significantly decreased activity of all antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT and GPx) as well as concentration of GSH compared to the control group. The content of lipid (malondialdehyde, MDA) and protein (advanced oxidation protein products, AOPP; advanced glycation end-products, AGE) oxidation products as well as biomarkers of nitrosative stress (peroxynitrite, nitrotyrosine) was significantly higher in both saliva and plasma of AD patients compared to the controls. In AD patients, we also observed a considerable decrease in stimulated saliva secretion and salivary total protein content, and an increase in salivary β-amyloid concentration.In conclusion, AD results in redox imbalance towards oxidative reactions, both at the level of the oral cavity and the entire body. General redox balance disturbances do not coincide with salivary redox balance disturbances. Reduction in stimulated saliva secretion in AD patients reflects secretory dysfunction of the parotid glands.

The prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), is a difficult task for modern health care. The purpose of this chapter was to review the literature on the prevention or alleviation of AD by introducing an appropriate carnitine-rich diet, dietary carnitine supplements and the MIND (Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay) diet, which contains elements of the Mediterranean diet and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. L-carnitine (LC) plays a crucial role in the energetic metabolism of the cell. A properly balanced diet contains a substantial amount of LC as well as essential amino acids and microelements taking part in endogenous carnitine synthesis. In healthy people, carnitine biosynthesis is sufficient to prevent the symptoms of carnitine deficiency. In persons with dysfunction of mitochondria, e.g., with AD connected with extensive degeneration of the brain structures, there are often serious disturbances in the functioning of the whole organism. The Mediterranean diet is characterized by a high consumption of fruits and vegetables, cereals, nuts, olive oil, and seeds as the major source of fats, moderate consumption of fish and poultry, low to moderate consumption of dairy products and alcohol, and low intake of red and processed meat. The introduction of food stuffs rich in carnitine and the MIND diet or carnitine supplementation of the AD patients may improve their functioning in everyday life. It should be stressed that correct nutrition is an important element of lifestyle that may be an important factor for healthy, slow, favorable aging and delaying the development of neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and AD.

Esketamine opens a new chapter in treatment-resistant depression. It is used more and more often, because the therapeutic methods used so far do not provide fully satisfactory results. This article is a review of the most important information regarding the efficacy of esketamine and according to fighting depression and its influence on the glutamate system. The review also contains a short description of the most common adverse events, including the research of different stages of therapy on which they can appear. It turns out that appropriate influence on the glutamate system reduces symptoms of depression. Intranasal administration of esketamine quickly improves the condition of patients with treatment-resistant depression and reduces the risk of suicide. Long-term studies are still going on and their results should provide necessary information for improvement of this therapeutic method for treatment-resistant depression.

Background While obesity has been correlated with welfare in the general population, there is not much data on the influence of body composition on welfare among the non-obese adult individuals. Methods A longitudinal, population-based study was conducted in 2017–2020. Body composition was assessed using Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry. Welfare was rated with Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Euro Quality of Life Visual Analogue Scale (EQ-VAS) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Results A total of 726 non-obese individuals from general population were analyzed. The mean age was 46.8 ± 15.4 years and 42.1% of participants were male. The mean value for SWLS was 23.09 ± 5.43, for EQ-VAS was 78.0 ± 14.5, and for BDI was 6.7 ± 6.6. On SWLS the waist-hip ratio had a negative impact even after adjustment for age, gender and concomitant diseases. EQ-VAS was inversely associated with android fat distribution and directly associated with muscle mass. BDI value was inversely associated with lower muscle mass, especially of the lower limbs. The well-being of women was mainly associated with the distribution of adipose tissue and less with the distribution of muscle tissue - abdominal fat distribution has a particularly negative impact on well-being among women. In contrast, men's well-being depends more on muscle mass and to a lesser extent on the distribution of fat tissue - a positive significant effect has lean mass and a circumference of thigh below gluteal fold. Conclusions Body composition is significantly associated with welfare in non-obese population. Android type fat distribution may have a negative impact while muscle mass positive.

Schizophrenia is a long-term mental disease, associated with functional impairment. Therefore, it is important to make an accurate diagnosis and implement the proper treatment. Biomarkers may be a potential tool for these purposes. Regarding advances in biomarker studies in psychosis, the current symptom-based criteria seem to be no longer sufficient in clinical settings. This narrative review describes biomarkers of psychosis focusing on the biochemical (peripheral and central), neurophysiological, neuropsychological and neuroimaging findings as well as the multimodal approach related with them. Endophenotype markers (especially neuropsychological and occulomotor disturbances) can be currently used in a clinical settings, whereas neuroimaging glutamate/glutamine and D2/D3 receptor density changes, as well as immunological Th2 and PRL levels, seem to be potential biomarkers that need further accuracy tests. When searching for biochemical/immunological markers in the diagnosis of psychosis, the appropriate time of body fluid collection needs to be considered to minimize the influence of the stress axis on their concentrations. In schizophrenia diagnostics, a multimodal approach seems to be highly recommended.

Serum carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT), an 80 kDa glycoprotein, is one of the most commonly employed biomarkers to detect alcohol dependence. Some salivary glycoproteins such as α-amylase, clusterin, haptoglobin, light/heavy-chain immunoglobulin, and transferrin, which alter glycosylation in alcohol-dependent persons, have been suggested to be potential alcohol markers. However, their identification is based on indirect analysis of lectin glycosidic bonds and molecular weight. We investigated the CDT content in the saliva of alcohol- and nicotine-dependent men. The CDT concentration (ng/mL, ng/mg protein) was determined by an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) commercial kit in 55 men: 20 healthy social drinkers (C), 10 chronic cigarette smokers (S), 10 alcohol-dependent non-smokers (A), and 15 alcohol-dependent smokers (AS). Surprisingly, there were no differences in the concentrations of CDT between the studied groups. Salivary pH was the lowest in the AS and the highest in the A group. Therefore, salivary CDT cannot be used as an alcohol dependence marker as measured by ELISA. We suggest that direct identification of glycoproteins is necessary to search for potential salivary alcohol biomarkers. Molecules smaller than 40 kDa, which easily translocate from blood to the saliva, might be preferred as salivary alcohol markers.

The prevention or alleviation of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), is a challenge for contemporary health services. The aim of this study was to review the literature on the prevention or alleviation of AD by introducing an appropriate carnitine-rich diet, dietary carnitine supplements and the MIND (Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay) diet, which contains elements of the Mediterranean diet and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. L-carnitine (LC) plays a crucial role in the energetic metabolism of the cell. A properly balanced diet contains a substantial amount of LC as well as essential amino acids and microelements taking part in endogenous carnitine synthesis. In healthy people, carnitine biosynthesis is sufficient to prevent the symptoms of carnitine deficiency. In persons with dysfunction of mitochondria, e.g., with AD connected with extensive degeneration of the brain structures, there are often serious disturbances in the functioning of the whole organism. The Mediterranean diet is characterized by a high consumption of fruits and vegetables, cereals, nuts, olive oil, and seeds as the major source of fats, moderate consumption of fish and poultry, low to moderate consumption of dairy products and alcohol, and low intake of red and processed meat. The introduction of foodstuffs rich in carnitine and the MIND diet or carnitine supplementation of the AD patients may improve their functioning in everyday life.

Background Interactions between the digestive system and the brain functions have become in recent years an important field of psychiatric research. These multidirectional interactions take place in the so called microbiota-gut-brain axis and emerging scientific data indicate to the significant role of microbiota in the modulation of the central nervous system (CNS) including affective and cognitive functions. Objective An assessment of psychobiotic and immunomodulatory effects of probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus Plantarum 299v (LP299v) by measuring affective, cognitive functions and biochemical parameters in patients with MDD undergoing treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI). Design Seventy nine patients with MDD were randomized and allocated to a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Participants received either a SSRI with the probiotic LP299v (n = 40) for a period of 8 weeks or a SSRI with the placebo of the probiotic (n = 39) for the same period. The severity of psychiatric symptoms was assessed using Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D 17), Symptom Checklist (SCL-90) and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). Cognitive functions were assessed using the Attention and Perceptivity Test (APT), Stroop Test parts A and B, Ruff Figural Fluency Test (RFFT), Trail Making Test (TMT) Parts A and B and the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT). Biochemical parameters such as tryptophan (TRP), kynurenine (KYN), kynurenic acid (KYNA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3HKYN), anthranilic acid (AA), 3-hydroxy anthranilic acid (3HAA), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1-beta (IL-1b) and cortisol plasma concentrations were measured. Results Sixty participants finished the study and were analyzed: 30 participants in the LP299v group and 30 participants in the placebo group. There was an improvement in APT and in CVLT total recall of trials 1–5 in the LP299v group compared with the placebo between baseline and after 8 weeks of intervention. There was a significant decrease in KYN concentration in the LP299v group compared to the placebo group. We also observed significant increase in 3HKYN:KYN ratio in the LP299v group compared with the placebo group. Additionally, Repeated Measures ANOVA revealed a significant effect of interaction of Treatment x time for AA concentration. However, results of post hoc analysis did not reach statistical significance in neither probiotic nor placebo group. There were no significant changes of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1b and cortisol concentrations in neither probiotic nor placebo groups. Conclusions Augmentation of SSRI treatment with probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus Plantarum 299v improved cognitive performance and decreased KYN concentration in MDD patients. Decreased KYN concentration could contribute to the improvement of cognitive functions in the LP299v group compared to the placebo group. To our knowledge results of this study are the first evidence of improvement of cognitive functions in MDD patients due to probiotic bacteria and this is the first evidence of decreased KYN concentration in MDD patients due to probiotic bacteria.

Introduction: The COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) affected individuals and society and caused disruption, anxiety, stress, and loneliness. Being hospitalized during the pandemic increase a patient’s negative feelings. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on patients’ feelings (loneliness, depression, hope, self-efficacy) during a hospital stay. Materials and methods: This study included 207 women, aged from 15 to 83 years (55 ± 21.2) that were hospitalized during the pandemic in Białystok, Łomża, and Biała Podlaska, Poland at internal medicine departments. The main reasons for hospitalization were cardiovascular diseases, abdominal pain, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, diabetes, and unknown fever. Respondents were asked to complete the following questionnaires: Sense of Loneliness (the DJGLS), Depression Beck Inventory (BDI), Basic Hope (BHI-12), and Self-Efficacy (GSES). Results: Most of the studied group of women had an average sense of loneliness. A greater sense of loneliness was found among hospitalized women living in the countryside—the lowest sense of loneliness and depression was among women with higher education and the highest sense of effectiveness. One-third of respondents had a moderate degree of depression. Of the respondents, 39% had a relatively high level of basic hope. The assessment of self-efficacy demonstrated that 52% of the respondents showed a high sense of self-efficacy, an average sense of self-efficacy was shown by 35.5% of the respondents, and a low sense of self-efficacy was shown by 12.6% of the respondents. Conclusions: Numerous hospitalized women during the COVID-19 pandemic, despite experiencing moderate depression, had an average sense of loneliness and a high level of hope and self-efficacy.

The ageing of the population is resulting in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which are an increasing social, economic and medical problem. Diet and physical activity are now considered as important modifiable factors that help prevent or delay the development of AD and other dementia-related diseases. The pyramid of healthy nutrition and lifestyle is a way of presenting the principles, the implementation of which gives a chance for proper development and a long healthy life. The basis of the pyramid, in the first place, is physical activity. Our review of the literature in the PubMed database supports the hypothesis that complementary factors, such as proper diet, physical exercise and mental activity, have a positive impact on the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases. The nutritional recommendations for healthy adults primarily include the consumption of vegetables, fruits, cereals, legumes, vegetable oils and fishes. Therefore, the introduction of Mediterranean and Asian diets may reduce the risk of the neurodegenerative diseases associated with dementia, whereas dairy products and meat—the main sources of L-carnitine—should be consumed in moderate amounts. The aim of our work is to provide up-to-date knowledge about the appropriate dietary model and healthy lifestyle elements and their impact on good health and the long life of people.

Introduction: Human health is largely determined by factors such as human behavior and style of life. Purpose: To evaluate selected patterns of behavior of medical students, such as smoking, alcohol abuse, drug use, and their assertiveness. Materials and methods: The study included 338 students from Bialystok, Poland, and 339 from Grodno, Belarus. The original questionnaire, Fasterström's Nicotine Addiction Test, Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test, Drug Use Problem Test, and Assertiveness Test according to Grębski were all used. Results: In both groups, the level of cigarette dependence was low, with 10% of the students from Poland and 15% from Belarus being habitual cigarette smokers. No significant differences were found in the frequency of alcohol consumption between Polish (57%) and Belarusian (52%) students. Of the respondents, 3.3% from Poland and 1.5% from Belarus met the criteria of alcohol dependence according to the MAST test. There were no statistically significant differences in the frequency of drug use between the Polish (1.5%) and Belarusian (1.8%) students. The average level of assertiveness was 16.2 for Polish students and 15.4 for Belarusian students, which was a significant difference. Conclusions: These results indicate similar percentages of Polish and Belarusian students smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, and use drugs. In addition, Polish students were more assertive than Belarusian students.

The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of age on lysosomal exoglycosidase activities: α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and α-mannosidase in healthy children and adolescents.Urine samples were collected from 203 healthy children and adolescents (girls = 99, boys = 104), aged six months to 17.9 years. The activities of α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and α-mannosidase were determined by colorimetric method and expressed in pKat/μg of creatine (pKat/μg Cr.).Urinary α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and α-mannosidase activities (pKat/μg Cr.) were the highest in children below 3 years of age in comparison to the remaining age groups. There was a statistically significant negative correlation between urinary α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and α-mannosidase (pKat/μg Cr.) and age (r = -0.36; r = -0.36; r = -0.35; r = -0.35; at p 0.0001, respectively). In addition, we constructed the reference values for urinary activity of α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and α-mannosidase (pKat/μg Cr.) in percentiles according to age in 3-year intervals.Our study is the first to show reference values for urinary α-fucosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and α-mannosidase in children and adolescents.

Purpose Adaptation of the colorimetric method for the determination of β- d -galactosidase, β- d -glucuronidase and α- l -fucosidase activities in serums from hemolyzed blood, the material currently being discarded. Materials and Methods The materials included serums from hemolyzed and non-hemolyzed blood, obtained from 26 healthy volunteers. The adaptation of the method involved precipitation of the proteins with trichloroacetic acid after incubating serums with substrates, but before determining the products of enzymatic reactions. Results In serums from hemolyzed and non-hemolyzed blood of the same persons, we found high correlations among the results obtained using hemolyzed blood (with adapted) and non-hemolyzed blood (with non-adapted) methods. Conclusion We are able to determine the β- d -galactosidase, β- d -glucuronidase and α- l -fucosidase activities in serums from hemolyzed blood (with adapted) and non-hemolyzed blood (with non-adapted) methods, with the same accuracy and precision.

OBJECTIVE There is a lack of accurate alcohol-use biomarkers in children/adolescents due to a short drinking duration/rapid normalization of elevated markers. We checked if lysosomal exoglycosidases, elevated earlier in binge-drinking young adults, can be applicable in children/adolescents as markers of harmful alcohol use. METHODS The serum activities (pKat/mL) of α-fucosidase (FUC), β-galactosidase (GAL), β-glucuronidase (GLU), β-hexosaminidase (HEX; its HEX A and HEX B isoenzymes), and α-mannosidase (MAN) were determined in 20 healthy controls (C) and 25 children/adolescents with harmful alcohol use (intoxicated by alcohol at hospital admission -AI1 and on the next day -AI2). RESULTS The serum HEX A and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity was significantly higher in the AI1 group than in the control. The activities of FUC, GAL, GLU, HEX B, and MAN were lower in the AI group. We found fair and poor accuracy, respectively, for increased enzymes HEX A and ALT. We found fair accuracy for decreased HEX B (AI1) and MAN (AI1), good accuracy for GLU (AI2), FUC (AI2), GAL (AI1, AI2), MAN (AI2), and excellent for FUC (AI1). Correlations were found: ALT with C-reactive protein (CRP), HEX A with white blood cell (WBC) count, blood alcohol concentration with FUC, MAN and HEX B, and WBC with FUC. CONCLUSIONS Decreased FUC, GLU, GAL, MAN values, and especially FUC (AI1) have the potential to be markers of harmful alcohol use in children/adolescents. The raised activity of HEX A and ALT points to the need for further research to check another inflammatory agent as potential alcohol marker in children and adolescents. Samples need to be collected before intravenous fluid therapy.

The effects of COVID-19 on the human body are not yet understood enough. Medical history provides information on cases of psychiatric symptoms during viral infections in the 20th century, such as the influenza pandemic. Currently, it is observed that there is an increasing number of new psychiatric disorders in previously healthy individuals. In addition, because of the decreased amount of reporting to health care providers, including psychiatrists, many physicians suggest that the number of neuropsychiatric disorders may be underestimated. In this paper, we review available studies on the occurrence of first-time psychotic spectrum disorder (PSD) in individuals related to SARS-CoV-2 infection. The reviewed studies suggest that first-time psychotic disorder in COVID-19 patients is statistically significantly more frequent compared to influenza, as well as to other respiratory infections. The emergence of new PSDs is explained by direct neurotropism of the virus on the one hand and by immunological mechanisms on the other. The main conclusions of this review should be treated with caution, and future research on this topic is needed. The authors recognize the particular need to develop standardized laboratory panels that include inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-α), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing, and SARS-CoV-2 antibody assays to entirely understand the etiology of neuropsychiatric complications of SARS-CoV-2 infections and the pandemic itself. In addition, public health efforts are required to promote mental health, especially during COVID-19.

The objective of the study was to establish age - dependent values of the urinary lysosomal exoglycosidases activities: N-acetyl-β-D-hexosaminidase (HEX) and its isoenzyme A (HEX A) as well as isoenzyme B (HEX B) in healthy children and adolescents.The study was performed using a random sample of 203 healthy children and adolescents (girls=99, boys=104), aged six months to 17.9 years. The activities of HEX, HEX A and HEX B were determined by a colorimetric method. The activities of the urinary HEX and its isoenzymes were expressed in pKat/μg of creatinine (pKat/μg Cr).Median concentrations of urinary HEX, and its HEX A, HEX B isoenzymes in particular age groups were analyzed using ANOVA. Urinary HEX, HEX A and HEX B activities (pKat/μg Cr) were the highest in children below 3 years, in comparison to remaining age groups. There were statistically significant negative correlations between urinary HEX, HEX A as well as HEX B and age (r=-0.24, p0.001 (HEX); r=-0.20, p0.01 (HEX A); r=-0.26, p0.001 (HEX B), respectively. We constructed the reference values for urinary activity of HEX, HEX A and HEX B (pKat/μg Cr) in centiles according to age, in three-year intervals.Reported data present, for the first time, reference values for urinary activities of HEX and its isoenzymes HEX A and HEX B in children and adolescent.