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We investigated the relationships between parenting styles and children's core self-evaluation and self-congruence, and further explored the mediating effect of children's core self-evaluation in the relationship between parenting style and self-congruence. The survey participants were 385 undergraduate students at four public universities in Shandong, China. The results show that the students' perception of parental rejection and overprotection were positively correlated with their self-congruence, and that parental emotional warmth and students' core self-evaluation were negatively related to their self-congruence. Further, students' core self-evaluation partially mediated the relationship between their perception of parental overprotection/emotional warmth and their self-congruence. We determined that the mechanism of the effect of parenting styles on selfcongruence was as follows: High levels of parental overprotection or low levels of emotional warmth reduce the level of core self-evaluation of undergraduate students, which further contributes to inconsistency in their self-congruence.

Parents and adolescents may hold discrepant views about parents' behaviors, which may be related to adolescent maladjustment. The goal of the present investigation was to examine associations between overprotective parenting and adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems and the frustration of their psychological needs (for autonomy, relatedness and competence), thereby considering both congruence and incongruence in adolescents' and mothers' reports of overprotective parenting. Our sample consisted of 402 mother-adolescent dyads (M adolescent age = 16.8 years, 63% female), who reported upon the mothers' overprotective parenting. In addition, adolescents filled out questionnaires assessing their internalizing and externalizing problems and psychological need frustration. Data were analyzed using polynomial regressions with response surface analysis. Results showed evidence for a linear, additive relationship between adolescents' and mothers' reports of overprotective parenting, and adolescents' internalizing and externalizing symptoms and relatedness and competence frustration. That is, higher scores in adolescents' and mothers' ratings of overprotective parenting were associated with more maladjustment and more need frustration. Moreover, results indicated that incongruence between adolescents' and mothers' reports related to more externalizing problems and more autonomy and relatedness frustration, and this was especially the case when adolescents perceived higher levels of overprotection than what was reported by mothers. These results underscore the importance of considering multiple perspectives when studying the dynamics involved in overprotective parenting.

Research has shown a link between parental and offspring internalizing problems and that parental warmth and overprotection affect these relationships. However, less research has examined how parental warmth and overprotection affect the link between parental internalizing problems and irritability in adolescents. Thus, the current study investigated the moderating effect of parental warmth and overprotection on the relationship between parental internalizing problems and adolescent irritability in the context of parent and child gender. Participants were parents of adolescents aged 10–24 years and completed surveys online about themselves, the adolescent, and the adolescent’s other primary caregiver. Questionnaires assessed parental warmth and overprotection, parental internalizing problems, and adolescent irritability. Results indicated a moderating effect of parental warmth (b = −0.08, p

Previous studies have indicated that high parental overprotection and insecure attachment patterns are associated with obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Moreover, self-worth depending on different domains have been held partly responsible for the occurrence and persistence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in related domains. The present study examines how overprotective parental attitudes relates to the endorsement of relationship-centered obsessive thinking through attachment anxiety, especially among individuals whose self-worth is highly dependent on their partner's flaws and failures. The sample consisted of 538 Turkish adults who were in an intimate relationship. They were asked to fill out the self-report measures of retrospective parental overprotection, attachment anxiety, partner-contingent self-worth, and relationship-centered obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Indirect effects were tested using Model 14 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS. Path modeling analysis revealed that anxious attachment mediated the relationship between high parental overprotection and relationship-centered obsessive-compulsive symptoms. In addition, partner-contingent self-worth moderated the relationship between attachment anxiety and relationship-centered obsessive-compulsive symptoms. These findings supported the link between developmental and self-related risk factors and relationship-centered obsessive thinking. This preliminary study yielded promising results for future research in the area.

Background Recent views posited that negative parenting and attachment insecurity can be considered as general environmental factors of vulnerability for psychosis, specifically for individuals diagnosed with psychosis (PSY). Furthermore, evidence highlighted a tight relationship between attachment style and social cognition abilities, a key PSY behavioral phenotype. The aim of this study is to generate a machine learning algorithm based on the perceived quality of parenting and attachment style-related features to discriminate between PSY and healthy controls (HC) and to investigate its ability to track PSY early stages and risk conditions, as well as its association with social cognition performance. Methods Perceived maternal and paternal parenting, as well as attachment anxiety and avoidance scores, were trained to separate 71 HC from 34 PSY (20 individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia + 14 diagnosed with bipolar disorder with psychotic manifestations) using support vector classification and repeated nested cross-validation. We then validated this model on independent datasets including individuals at the early stages of disease (ESD, i.e. first episode of psychosis or depression, or at-risk mental state for psychosis) and with familial high risk for PSY (FHR, i.e. having a first-degree relative suffering from psychosis). Then, we performed factorial analyses to test the group x classification rate interaction on emotion perception, social inference and managing of emotions abilities. Results The perceived parenting and attachment-based machine learning model discriminated PSY from HC with a Balanced Accuracy (BAC) of 72.2%. Slightly lower classification performance was measured in the ESD sample (HC-ESD BAC = 63.5%), while the model could not discriminate between FHR and HC (BAC = 44.2%). We observed a significant group x classification interaction in PSY and HC from the discovery sample on emotion perception and on the ability to manage emotions (both p = 0.02). The interaction on managing of emotion abilities was replicated in the ESD and HC validation sample (p = 0.03). Conclusion Our results suggest that parenting and attachment-related variables bear significant classification power when applied to both PSY and its early stages and are associated with variability in emotion processing. These variables could therefore be useful in psychosis early recognition programs aimed at softening the psychosis-associated disability.

Parents of preterm children are more likely to adopt non-optimal parenting behaviors than parents of full-term (FT) children. However, there is a lack of studies on parents of children born moderate to late preterm (MLP; 32–36 gestational weeks). In this study, we aimed to examine: (1) the association between MLP birth status and the trajectory of parental overprotection throughout preschool years, and (2) the role of parental overprotection, MLP birth status, and their interaction in the prediction of the trajectories of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention throughout childhood. Data comes from a Canadian representative population-based cohort including 2028 FT, 100 MLP children, and their parents. Overprotective parenting was measured when children were 5, 17, and 29 months old. Hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention symptoms were measured repeatedly from 4 to 8 years of age. Trajectories of parents’ overprotectiveness and children’s hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention were modeled. MLP birth status was associated with an increase in parental overprotectiveness across the preschool period. MLP birth status and parental overprotection were both found to be associated with higher levels of hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms across childhood. No interaction was found between birth status and parental overprotection. The results suggest that parents of MLP children become more overprotective across time compared to parents of FT children and that children born MLP and/or exposed to higher levels of parental overprotection demonstrated higher levels of hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms across childhood.

Previous studies suggested that parenting style was associated with college student's emotional distress. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms of this relation in Chinese culture. The present study investigated the associations between parenting style and college student's emotional distress (depression and anxiety symptoms), examined the mediating effects of Confucian personality-Zhongyong thinking, and explored whether gender, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) moderated the direct and/or indirect effects of parenting style on emotional distress. Results from a large representative sample of Chinese college students (n = 3943) indicated that (a) parental rejection and overprotection was positively and mildly associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms and negatively and mildly related to Zhongyong thinking. Parental warmth significantly correlated with the three variables in the opposite direction; Zhongyong thinking correlated negatively and moderately with depression, and mildly with anxiety; (b) Zhongyong thinking partially mediated the associations of parental rejection and warmth with emotional distress. Specifically, to the extent that students perceived less rejection and more warmth, they were more likely to develop Zhongyong thinking associated with decreased emotional distress; (c) gender and SES moderated the association between parenting style and Zhongyong thinking. Specifically, for students with low SES, the negative relationship between parental overprotection and Zhongyong thinking was stronger; for males and high SES students, the positive link between parental warmth and Zhongyong thinking were stronger. Results highlight the importance of researching potential effects of college student's Zhongyong thinking within the family system in Chinese culture.

While the Dualistic Model of Passion posits that passion can fluctuate over time, the investigation of this notion still remains understudied and is mostly assessed indirectly. This study directly examined the ongoing development of passion in a sample of young adults (N = 205) over a period of 4 months. The contribution of individual (need fulfillment) and social (perceived parental styles) determinants to the growth trajectories were also considered. Via latent growth modeling, the results showed that harmonious passion, obsessive passion, and the passion criteria had elevated levels at the initial measurement, and that passion remained high and stable over the course of 4 months. As for the predictors, parental autonomy-support predicted all three trajectories, while parental overprotection predicted obsessive passion, and psychological need fulfillment predicted harmonious passion. These findings provide a deeper insight into the temporal dynamics of passion as well as highlight key variables for fostering passion in general or harmonious passion as well as for taming obsessive passion.

In the second volume of his trilogy on attachment theory, John Bowlby (1973: 210) wrote: when the actual experiences they have had during childhood are known and can be taken into account, the pathological fears of adult patients can often be seen in a radically new light. Paranoid symptoms that had been regarded as autogenous and imaginary are seen to be intelligible, albeit distorted, responses to historical events. Yet 35 years later the relationships between attachment and psychotic experiences are poorly understood. While attachment security is clearly compromised in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia (Dozier, 1990; Dozier and Lomax, 1994; Dozier and Lee, 1995; Mickelson et al., 1997; Tyrrell et al., 1999; Dozier et al., 2001), it is not yet clear how Q1 the developmental pathways leading to schizophrenia differ from those leading, also from insecure early attachments, to other psychopathological disorders. Likewise, no developmental pathway unique to schizophrenia has been found to lead from the low levels of parental care and high levels of parental overprotection (Parker et al., 1982; Onstad et al., 1994; Winther Helgeland and Torgersen, 1997; Willinger et al., 2002) and low security in close relationships (Tait, Birchwood and Trower, 2004; Ponizovsky, Nechamkin and Rosca, 2007) reported by persons with this diagnosis, as such experiences are reported by persons with other diagnoses as well. While these data have been helpful in developing

Parental control behaviors are suggested to be related to emerging adult outcomes, such as risky sexual behavior. Although parental control behaviors are more likely to be considered protective against risky sexual behavior, the relation between parental overprotection and risky sexual behavior is unclear. Furthermore, parental overprotection may influence peer selection and prosocial behaviors in emerging adults, which may in turn influence outcomes of risky sexual behavior, as suggested by primary socialization theory. Thus, the current study investigated the relations among paternal and maternal overprotection, emerging adult peer alienation, and risky sexual behavior, and expanded on these relations by examining gender effects of both parents and children. The sample consisted of 505 participants (228 males and 277 females) ranging in age from 18 to 25 years. Analyses were conducted with AMOS path analysis and indicated that peer alienation mediated the effect between both maternal and paternal perceived overprotection and risky sexual behavior, but more strongly for males, suggesting moderated mediation. Overall, parental overprotection may be protective against risky sexual behavior via pathways that are harmful such as peer alienation, thus recommending research continues to clarify the nuances of these relations.Se sugiere que las conductas de control parental están relacionadas con consecuencias en los adultos emergentes, como el comportamiento sexual riesgoso. Aunque las conductas de control parental son más propensas a considerarse protectoras del comportamiento sexual riesgoso, la relación entre la sobreprotección de los padres y el comportamiento sexual riesgoso es confusa. Además, la sobreprotección de los padres puede influir en la elección del grupo de pares y las conductas prosociales de los adultos emergentes, que a su vez pueden influir en consecuencias de comportamiento sexual riesgoso, como lo sugiere la teoría de la socialización primaria. Por lo tanto, el presente estudio investigó las relaciones entre la sobreprotección materna y paterna, la alienación de los pares del adulto emergente y el comportamiento sexual riesgoso, y amplió estas relaciones analizando los efectos del género de los padres y los niños. La muestra consistió en 505 participants (228 hombres y 277 mujeres) de entre 18 y 25 años. Los análisis se realizaron con el análisis de ruta AMOS, e indicaron que la alienación de los pares medió el efecto entre la sobreprotección materna y paterna percibidas y el comportamiento sexual riesgoso, pero más marcadamente en los hombres, lo cual sugirió una mediación moderada. En general, la sobreprotección parental puede proteger contra la conducta sexual riesgosa a través de vías que son perjudiciales, como la alienación de los pares, por lo tanto, se recomienda continuar con la investigación a fin de aclarar los matices de estas relaciones.研究显示家长控制行为可能和初期成年人结果,例如危险性行为有关联。虽然人们一般认为家长控制行为会预防危险性行为,家长过度保护和危险性行为之间的关系并不清楚。此外,家长过度保护可能影响初期成年人有益社会的行为和同龄人选择,而主要社会化理论认为这会反过来影响危险性行为结果。因此,该当前研究考察了父亲和母亲过度保护,初期成年人同龄人之间疏离,以及危险性行为之间的关系,并通过考察家长和孩子的性别效果来扩展这些关系。样本由505名年龄在18到25岁之间的参与者(228名男性和277名女性)组成。我们用AMOS路径进行分析进行分析。结果显示同龄人疏离会调解感知到母亲和父亲过度保护以及危险性行为之间的影响,特别是对男性显示出缓和介导。总体来说,家长过度保护可能通过有害路径例如同龄人疏离来预防危险性行为,因此我们建议继续研究以阐明这些关系的细微处。.

Background: Somatoform disorders are common problem among children and adolescents. As children's verbal skills are relatively poorly developed to express their psychological problem, it is not surprising that they display somatic symptoms in response to life stresses.Objectives: The study aimed to explore the difference of somatoform disorders and symptoms between boys and girls the causal association of psychosocial factors.Materials & Methods: This is a cross-sectional descriptive study conducted at weekly Child Psychiatry Clinic of Psychiatry OPD and Pediatrics OPD in Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU) of 6-16 years' age group from June to December' 2003. Total 450 respondents, 350 from Pediatric OPD & 100 from Child Psychiatry Clinic of Psychiatry OPD, were included in this study.Results: No significant gender difference was found in the diagnostic categories of somatoform disorders. Both boys and girls reported higher rates of undifferentiated somatoform disorders, 33.33% and 37.50% respectively. Abnormal psychosocial factors were found in majority of the cases and the most common was parental overprotection (26.42%). Overall, associated abnormal psychosocial situations were significantly higher among girls than that of boys (P

Early experiences with parents may be particularly difficult for lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals who face stigma that is linked to potentially distinct stress-related biobehavioural profiles. This study examined the association between parental bonding in relation to acute stress (cortisol reactivity) and chronic stress (allostatic load) in LGB and heterosexual individuals. The sample consisted of 87 healthy adults (mean [SD] age = 24.6 [0.6] years; LGB: n = 46, 43% women; and heterosexual n = 41, 49% women). Regressions tested the main effects of retrospectively assessed parental overprotection and care before the age of 16 on stress reactive cortisol (area under the curve) and allostatic load (indexed using 21 neuroendocrine, immune, metabolic and cardiovascular biomarkers), and whether sexual orientation status moderated this association. Results revealed that parental overprotection was associated with increased cortisol reactivity only for LGB participants, but not for heterosexual participants. By contrast, parental overprotection was associated with higher allostatic load only for heterosexual participants, but not for LGB participants. While the functional significance of this requires further study, these preliminary findings suggest that adaptive processes among LGB individuals may mitigate the negative effects of parental overprotection on markers of chronic stress. published

This study explores the interplay between parenting behavior and prosocial behavior and examines whether parenting behavior acts as a mediator that explains gender differences in prosocial behavior. We recruited 1988 adolescents (mean age = 14.6 years, SD = 1.8) from 17 secondary schools in Hong Kong. The results showed that parenting behaviors characterized by care, autonomy, and overprotection had differential positive effects on public, emotional, compliant, anonymous, and altruistic prosocial behaviors, whereas indifferent parenting had a negative impact on altruistic prosocial behavior. Among parenting behaviors, autonomy had the most influential positively direct effect on emotional, compliant, anonymous, and altruistic prosocial behaviors. In addition, with mediating effects of gender-differentiated parenting behaviors, boys were influenced significantly more on emotional and altruistic prosocial behaviors by parental overprotection, whereas indifference negatively mediated their altruistic prosocial behavior. These findings provide valuable insights into the multidimensional nature of parenting and prosocial behaviors and partially explain the mechanisms underlying gender differences in adolescents' prosocial behaviors.

The present study aims to examine why parents engage in overprotective parenting in interaction with their emerging adults. Specifically, this study used an Actor-Partner Interdependence Model to examine associations between parental attachment representations (both maternal and paternal attachment anxiety and avoidance), parental separation anxiety, and parental overprotection. Additionally, we examined whether maternal attachment, separation anxiety, and overprotection predicted the emerging adult’s actual living situation (at home / away from home) 1 year later, and maternal negative affect regarding emerging adults’ home-leaving. The sample consisted of Caucasian participants and included 246 adolescents in their final year of secondary school (mean age Time 1 = 17.14) and their parents (242 mothers, 218 fathers). Results showed that both maternal and paternal attachment anxiety related to more maternal and paternal separation anxiety, respectively (p’s

Adverse life events increase the risk of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Parental rearing may serve as a protective factor in the face of adversity. We investigated whether parental rearing moderates the association between adverse life events and the subsequent first onset of OCD. A representative sample of individuals (aged 14–24 years) was followed for over 10 years (N = 2210). OCD and any adverse life event, that is, any separation event or any traumatic life event, were assessed using the Munich-Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Parental rearing was assessed by self-report, using the Questionnaire of Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior. Both maternal (risk ratio, RR = 0.08, 95% confidence interval, CI [0.02, 0.31]) and paternal (RR = 0.16, 95% CI [0.03, 0.89]) emotional warmth moderated the association between any adverse life event and OCD. Maternal (RR = 0.16, 95% CI [0.03, 0.77]) and paternal (RR = 0.17, 95% CI [0.04, 0.78]) emotional warmth interacted specifically with any traumatic life event but not with any separation event in predicting OCD. We did not find any interactions with parental overprotection or rejection in predicting OCD. Parental emotional warmth may be a protective factor for OCD among individuals who experience traumatic life events. Future studies should evaluate whether interventions enhancing parental emotional warmth among those who experience traumatic life events can prevent OCD.

Looming Cognitive Style, which was proposed as cognitive vulnerability model specific for anxiety disorders, suggests that anxiety-prone individuals have a tendency to perceive threats and dangers as getting closer, becoming larger, and more agonizing every passing minute. Yet, very few studies focused on the family-related variables that are associated with development of Looming Cognitive Style. This study aims to investigate the relationship of Looming Cognitive Style with measures perceived parenting and attachment. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 389 university students aged between 18 and 35 as participants. The participants were assessed through Looming Cognitive Style, perceived parenting, attachment anxiety, and avoidance. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated Looming Cognitive Style to be significantly predicted by maternal overprotection and anxiety dimension of attachment. The results are important in understanding how parenting-related variables are related to development of cognitive vulnerabilities specific to anxiety disorders.

We examined perceived parental styles, emotion socialization practices and emotion dysregulation among fathers from a community sample in order to understand the intergenerational transmission of normative parenting behaviors. The sample consisted of 217 fathers of school-age children ranging in age from 6 to 12 years. We used a cross-sectional design. The fathers completed a set of self-report questionnaires including parental boding instrument, difficulties in emotion regulation scale, and coping with children’s negative emotion scale. The findings indicated that fathers’ perceived parental care of their own parents (G1) was negatively linked to fathers’ (G2) non-supportive responses to negative emotions shown by their children (G3) through its negative association with the father’s (G2) emotion regulation difficulties, whereas fathers’ perceived parental overprotection of their own parents (G1) was positively linked to fathers’ (G2) non-supportive responses to negative emotions shown by their children (G3) through its positive associations with the fathers’ (G2) emotion regulation difficulties. The current study contributed to the further understanding of individual differences in fathers’ emotion socialization practices. The findings potentially shed lights on prevention and intervention efforts regarding limiting the expansion of maladaptive emotional parenting behaviors across generations.

Objective Caregivers of children with a disorder of sex development (DSD) are at increased risk for maladaptive parenting capacities, such as high levels of parental overprotection and perceived vulnerability of their child, in addition to parenting stress. The current study aims to examine whether there are relationships between these parenting capacities and psychological distress, including depressive and anxious symptoms. Patients and methods Participants included 134 caregivers of 90 children with a DSD. Caregivers completed measures of parental overprotection, perceived vulnerability, parenting stress, anxiety, and depression. Results Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that higher levels of parenting stress were related to more anxious and depressive symptoms in caregivers. Higher levels of perceived vulnerability were related to more anxious symptoms. Levels of parental overprotection were unrelated to anxious or depressive symptoms. Conclusions There is a relationship between parenting capacities and mental health outcomes in caregivers of children with DSD, although the direction of this relationship is not clear. Given the strong relationships between parenting stress and anxious and depressive symptoms, targeting parenting stress and/or psychological distress in these caregivers could result in better functioning overall.

There has recently been increased attention focused on understanding the mechanisms through which parenting practices relate to anxiety in adulthood. Theoretical and empirical literature suggests that emotion regulation difficulties, particularly the use of avoidant regulation strategies, may be one such mechanism. Thus, this cross-sectional study investigated the mediating role of experiential avoidance in the relation between perceived parental overprotection and anxiety in young adulthood. A sample of 382 undergraduates completed questionnaires assessing the constructs of interest. Results indicate that perceived parental overprotection was significantly uniquely associated with anxiety symptom severity. Furthermore, results provide support for a model in which experiential avoidance mediates the association between perceived parental overprotection and anxiety. Findings of the present study highlight one potential mechanism underlying the association between early caregiving experiences and anxiety in young adulthood, suggesting that efforts to avoid internal experiences may play a role in the pathogenesis of anxiety. Findings are interpreted and discussed in the context of study limitations.

Aims To examine the effect of anxiety and parental overprotection on functional somatic symptoms (FSS) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Method Seventy-six children and adolescents (aged 6–17) with ADHD and their parents completed a clinical interview about psychiatric and somatic symptoms. Parents also reported about parenting styles. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used. Results The generalized anxiety, overprotection, and specific phobia variables each had a direct effect on FSS. Conclusions Anxiety symptoms and parental overprotection may play a role in the development of FSS in children with ADHD. Further research is necessary to corroborate our findings.

Children who exhibit elevated levels of the temperament trait behavioural inhibition (BI) across time may be at greatest risk for anxiety. However, little research has investigated the influence of other temperamental traits, particularly positive emotionality (PE), on the continuity of BI in childhood, nor whether parental overprotection influences associations between early and later child BI. To explore whether PE and overprotection shape associations between early and later BI, this longitudinal study of three-year-olds (N = 446) followed up at age 6 included tasks tapping child temperament, and parental overprotection was assessed via interview ratings and parent-report. Lower levels of child PE and higher levels of caregiver overprotection at baseline predicted stronger associations between laboratory-assessed BI at ages 3 and 6. Findings elucidate influences shaping the developmental continuity of BI.

The present study tests J.S. Wiggins and P.D. Trapnell's (1996. A dyadic-interactional perspective on the five-factor model. In J.S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five-factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 88–162). New York, NY: Guilford Press) meta-concepts of community and agency and H. Richards’ (1998. Evil intent: Violence and disorders of the will. In T. Millon, E. Simonsen, M. Birket-Smith, & R.D. Davis (Eds.), Psychopathy, antisocial, criminal, and violent behavior (pp. 69–94). New York, NY: Guilford Press) model of structural affective, relational, and defensive deviances in pathological extreme self-states in psychopathic high-security and detention prisoners, to identify areas where psychopaths may be influenced to change. Male inmates (n = 16) were compared to non-criminal and non-personality disordered controls (n = 35) on measures of parental bonding, symptom- and character pathology, and psychological defense. Results revealed a tendency toward parental overprotection or control. A...

There have been few studies which examined the developmental origins of cognitive vulnerability of depression. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of parental rearing on sociotropy and autonomy, the personality vulnerability factors in the cognitive theory of depression.The subjects were 416 healthy subjects. Perceived parental rearing was assessed by the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), which has care and protection factors, and sociotropy and autonomy were assessed by the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale.In males, neither sociotropy nor autonomy was affected by paternal rearing or maternal rearing. In females, higher levels of sociotropy were related to higher maternal protection (β=0.308, p0.01), while autonomy was affected neither by paternal rearing nor by maternal rearing.Parental behaviors not covered by the PBI may affect formation of autonomy.The present study suggests that parental overprotection increases sociotropy with gender specificity in parents and recipients.

Parents who are not overly protective and who encourage children to take on challenging experiences may help children develop an enhanced sense of control, thereby reducing the risk for subsequent anxiety. We developed the Parental Facilitation of Mastery Scale (PFMS) to assess parenting behaviors that may promote mastery experiences in childhood. Undergraduates and their biological siblings were recruited to complete the PFMS as well as other measures of parenting behaviors, perceived control, and anxiety. A factor analysis of the PFMS revealed two components representing parental overprotection and parental challenge. These two factors demonstrated adequate psychometric properties. We therefore used this measure to test a model in which perceived control mediated the relationship between parenting behaviors and anxiety. The hypothesized model demonstrated good fit, suggesting that the PFMS may be a useful tool for measuring parental behaviors that promote a sense of mastery and ultimately buffer against anxiety in adulthood.

Objective. To test the proposal that ‘poor-me’ (PM) and ‘bad-me’ (BM) paranoia can be differentiated in terms of (1) current emotional experience and presence of grandiose delusions and (2) early caregiving and threats to self-construction. Method. Participants experiencing persecutory delusions were separated into PM (N= 21) and BM (N= 15) groups on the basis of perceived deservedness of the persecution. The groups were compared on measures examining grandiose delusions, shame and depression, parental care, and threats of alienation and insecurity. Results. As predicted, BM patients scored higher on shame and depression, and lower on grandiose delusions, than PM patients. BM patients reported higher levels of parental overprotection, but PM patients were not characterized by neglect, and the groups did not differ in type of threat to self-construction. Conclusion. The two paranoia types were differentiated on symptomatic and emotional presentation, but predicted differences in early relationships and self-construction were not fully supported.

We analyzed the role of parental overprotection and extroversion in forming relationships with peers among 158 adolescents with visual impairments and 158 adolescents who were sighted. Negative associations of overprotection with the number of friends and membership in a peer group and of low extroversion with having a close friend were stronger in the adolescents with visual impairment.

The care of adult patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) is challenging from a mental health perspective, as these patients continue to face a variety of biopsychosocial issues that may impact emotional functioning. Despite these issues, there are limited data on the psychosocial functioning of adults with CHD, and there are no data on the impact of parental overprotection on heart-focused anxiety in this patient population. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between patient recollections of parental overprotection and current heart-focused anxiety in adults with CHD. A cross-sectional sample of 190 adult patients with CHD (51% male; mean age = 32.28, SD = 11.86 years) completed validated measures of perceived parental overprotection (Parental Bonding Instrument) and heart-focused anxiety (Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire). The results indicated that perceived parental overprotection (β = 0.19, p = 0.02) and heart defect complexity (β = 0.17, p = 0.03) were significantly related to heart-focused anxiety. Contrary to hypotheses, perceived parental overprotection did not vary as a function of heart defect complexity (F (2, 169) = 0.02, p = 0.98). Perceived parental overprotection and heart defect complexity are associated with heart-focused anxiety in adults with congenital heart disease. These results can inform the development of clinical interventions aimed at improving the psychosocial adjustment of this patient population.

We examined the hypothesized link between early parental bonding experience and adult attachment in 565 graduate students in China. Data were analyzed according to gender. When adult attachment was measured dimensionally, findings showed the hypothesized relationship was not supported in both genders. However, partial support was indicated when adult attachment was measured categorically: (a) securely attached females reported significantly higher levels of paternal care than fearfully attached females; (b) securely attached males reported significantly higher levels of parental care and lower levels of parental overprotection than the 3 insecurely attached groups of males. Results are discussed in the context of the role cultural variables play in the development of attachment quality.

The overlapping generations model presented herein requires incorporation of exactly three periods in which one lives, but makes intertemporal decision-making twice, neither once nor three times. Single decision-making at the outset, none thereafter, ignores the fact that one makes decisions every day anew as long as tomorrow exists. Incorporating such observations most simply requires decisions to be made at the first period and the second, but not at the third or last period. Our model reveals how the Mabiki (infanticides) and the Narayama (elderlycides) can occur simultaneously. We also find conditions under which child-indulgence and parental overprotection called sunekajiri might be reckoned a virtue.

Previous work has shown that students who have troublesome relationships with their parents show higher risk factors for poorer college adjustment. In the present study, we focused on the balance between two key aspects of parenting style, parental care and overprotection, as they affect the transition to college life. Eighty-three undergraduate college students completed the College Adjustment Scales and the Parental Bonding Instrument. The most successful college adjustment was seen in students with parents viewed as providing the unique combination of high care and low overprotection. Higher parental care and less overprotection were significantly associated with better college adjustment across several domains of college-related problems, including academic problems, anxiety, interpersonal problems, depression, self-esteem problems, and family problems. Both maternal and paternal care was critical for successful college adjustment. These results have important implications for understanding how familial issues powerfully influence college adjustment and student retention, and provide compelling evidence of the need for limits to parental support in students entering college.

The effect of parental rearing on interpersonal sensitivity was studied in 469 Japanese volunteers. Perceived parental rearing was assessed by the Parental Bonding Instrument, which consists of the factors of care and protection, and interpersonal sensitivity was measured by the Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure (IPSM). In male subjects, higher IPSM scores were related to higher scores of paternal protection (P < .01) and maternal protection (P < .05). In female subjects, higher IPSM scores were related to higher scores of maternal protection (P < .001). The present study suggests that in both males and females, interpersonal sensitivity is increased by high protection of the same-sex parents and that in males there is an additional effect of high maternal protection.

Background To examine the relationship of self-reported parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress to parent-reported behavioral, emotional, and social adjustment of children currently on treatment for cancer. Procedure Parents of 62 children (34 boys, 28 girls) currently on treatment for cancer were recruited from an outpatient pediatric cancer clinic. Children ranged in age from 2 to 12 years; age at diagnosis ranged from 1.33 to 11.83 years. Results Higher levels of parenting stress, but not parental overprotection or perceived child vulnerability, were associated with poorer behavioral and social adjustment. Higher levels of perceived child vulnerability and parenting stress, but not parental overprotection, were independently associated with poorer emotional adjustment. Conclusions Specific parenting variables appear to be related to specific adjustment outcomes in children with cancer. Longitudinal follow-up of these children is necessary to determine the developmental trajectory of parent variables and long-term child outcomes. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008;51:269–274. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The present study describes an examination of the relationship of parent self-focused negative attributions to specific parenting variables, namely parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress. Parents of children diagnosed with one of three chronic illnesses, Type 1 diabetes (DM1), asthma (AS), or cystic fibrosis (CF), completed self-report measures of attributions for illness-unrelated events, parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress. Results indicated that parent self-focused negative attributions were significantly associated with parenting stress among the combined and DM1-only samples. In addition, parent self-focused negative attributions were associated with perceived child vulnerability among the CF-only group, whereas selffocused negative attributions were not associated with any of the parenting variables within the AS-only group. The current results suggest that parent self-focused negative attributions may exert illness-specific influences on other cognitive processes (e.g., perceptions of child vulnerability, perceptions of stress), which have the potential to influence child adjustment outcomes.

Objective To examine the relationship of parent-reported overprotection (OP), perceived child vulnerability (PCV), and parenting stress (PS) to youth-reported illness uncertainty, and to explore potential developmental differences. Method Eighty-two children and 82 adolescents (n ¼164) diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM1) or asthma, completed a measure of illness uncertainty, while their parents completed measures of OP, PCV, and PS. Results After controlling for demographic and illness parameters, both PCV and PS significantly predicted youth illness uncertainty in the combined sample. Within the child group, only PS significantly predicted illness uncertainty, whereas only PCV significantly predicted uncertainty for adolescents. Conclusion Specific parenting variables are associated with youth-reported illness uncertainty; however, their relationship varies according to developmental level. Although OP has been identified as a predictor of child psychological outcomes in other studies, it does not appear to be associated with illness uncertainty in youth with DM1 or asthma.

The present study examined the relationship of three parent-related variables, namely, perceived child vulnerability, parental overprotection, and parenting stress to child self-care behaviors among 200 children with Type 1 diabetes, asthma, or cystic fibrosis. A related goal of the study was to examine for illness- and age-related differences among the same variables of interest. Results indicated that higher levels of parenting stress were associated with lower parent ratings of their child’s self-care behaviors. Additional analyses of individual illness groups demonstrated that age was significantly related to both child and parent ratings of self-care only for the diabetes group, with older children engaging in lower levels of self-care. Such results support continued investigation of parent behaviors and beliefs as they relate to child self-care outcomes at different ages in pediatric chronic illness populations.

While research has established a critical relationship between body-image shame and eating disorder symptomatology, no studies have examined factors contributing to body-image shame. As such, the present study assessed the contributions of internalisation of the thin ideal, appearance-related teasing, physical appearance-related comparisons, global self-worth, body-image esteem, teasing history and parental care and parental overprotection. Participants were 146 female undergraduate students aged between 18 and 25. Internalisation of the thin ideal was found to indirectly predict increases in body-image shame through appearance comparisons, while negative body-image esteem indirectly predicted increased body-image shame via global self-worth. Contrary to expectations, parental bonding practices and a history of weight-related teasing do not predict vulnerability to body-image shame, directly or indirectly. Collectively, body-image esteem, global self-worth, appearance comparison and internalisation of the thin ideal account for 62% of the variance in body-image shame.

Our study examined the relationship between parental overprotection and perceived child vulnerability to self-reported depressive symptoms in 8- to 12-year-old children diagnosed with type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. The moderating influence of parenting stress was also examined. Mothers (N = 43) completed measures of parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress, and the children completed a measure of child depression. Findings revealed that both child vulnerability and parenting stress were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms; no relationship was found between overprotection and child depressive symptoms. Regression results further indicated that parenting stress moderated the relationship between perceived child vulnerability and depressive symptomotology. Thus, parenting stress appears to magnify the relationship between perceived child vulnerability and child-reported depressive symptoms. Our findings lend additional empirical support for the transactional re...

Straipsnyje analizuojami depresijos simptomų, savivertės, tėvų auklėjimo stiliaus, seimos socialinio-ekonominio statuso rysiai. Tyrime dalyvavo 16–18 metų paaugliai (N = 300). Depresijos simptomams, savivertei ir tėvų auklėjimo stiliams nustatyti buvo naudojami YSR (Achenbach, 1991), RSE (Rosenberg, 1965) bei EMBU (Arrindell, 1999) klausimynai. Seimos socialinis-ekonominis statusas buvo nustatomas pateikus tiriamiesiems anketą. Rezultatų analizė atskleidė, kad merginos patiria daugiau depresijos simptomų ir turi menkesne saviverte nei vaikinai ir tai su amžiumi nekinta. Paaiskėjo, kad abiejų lycių paauglių depresijos simptomai ir savivertė yra tarpusavyje neigiamai susije. Regresinės analizės rezultatai parodė, kad savivertė, tėvų atstūmimas tiek merginoms, tiek vaikinams reiksmingai prognozuoja depresijos simptomus. Perdėta globa prognozuoja depresijos simptomus tik merginoms. Joks seimos socialinio-ekonominio statuso kintamasis paauglių depresijos simptomų neprognozuoja. Skirtumai tarp lycių prognozuojant paauglių depresijos simptomus leidžia daryti prielaidą, kad egzistuoja etiologiniai merginų ir vaikinų depresijos simptomų skirtumai. LINKS BETWEEN DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS, SELF-ESTEEM, SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND PARENTAL REARING AMONG ADOLESCENTS Oksana Malinauskienė, Rita Žukauskienė Summary Theories of parent child interactions suggest that parent-child transactional styles substantially influence children’s acquisition of appropriate social interaction skills, as well as impacting related adjustment outcomes. Early childhood experiences have frequently been suggested as causal factors in the development of psychopathological manifestations in adolescence. In particular, dysfunctional rearing practices appeared to be highly correlated with different types of psychopathology or psychological problems developed later in life, such as depressive symptoms and low self-esteem. Nevertheless, despite an increasing number of studies, the results were rather inconsistent and as not providing valid information on the relationships between depressive symptoms, low self-esteem, socioeconomic status and parental rearing practices among adolescents. There is still a lack of information about the role of parental rearing and socioeconomic status of the family in the development of emotional problems and self-esteem in children and adolescents. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to investigate possible relationships between depressive symptoms, self-esteem, socioeconomic status, parental rearing, gender and age. Convenient sample of adolescents (N = 300, from 16 to 18 years) was given a test measuring self-esteem, a test measuring depressive symptoms, and a test measuring parental rearing. The Lithuanian version of RSE (Rosenberg, 1965) has been used to assess self-esteem. The depression subscale of the Lithuanian version of YSR (Achenbach, 1991) has been used to assess depressive symptoms. Parental rearing (emotional warmth, rejection, overprotection) was assessed using the Lithuanian versijon of the EMBU (Arrindell, 1999; Arrindell et al., 1994). Three measures of socioeconomic status were used: mother’s education and father’s education, family income, and family structure (one or two parents). Depressive symptoms were found to be higher for girls than for boys, whereas self-esteem was found to be higher for boys than for girls. Depressive symptoms were associated with lower self-esteem, both for boys and girls. Multivariate regressional analysis indicated that depressive symptoms are significantly predicted by self-esteem for boys and girls, by parental rejection for boys and girls, and by parental overprotection only for girls. Depressive symptoms were not significantly predicted by any of the three socioeconomic status measures. In addition, self-esteem was significantly predicted by depression for boys and girls, by parental emotional warmth for boys and girls, and by parental overprotection and by familial income only for girls. The differences between the prediction of depressive symptoms and the prediction of self-esteem, which appeared negatively correlated, suggested etiological differences. The differences between gender, and the lower percent of explained variance by regression analysis for boys than for girls, suggested gender differences in etiology of depression and in etiology of self-esteem.

Relationships among perceptions of early parental bonding experiences, current adult attachment to significant others, and coping resources were examined in a sample of 100 adult clients seeking services through a university counselling clinic. Results of a canonical analysis indicated that secure adult attachment, higher parental care, and lower parental overprotection were significantly associated with higher coping resources. The significance of these findings for understanding the role of attachment in emotional self-regulation is discussed.

IntroductionAbout 20% of children suffer from an anxiety disorder and symptoms may persist in adulthood. About 13 in every 100 children from 9 to 17 years old experience anxiety disorders, girls seem more vulnerable than boys. Theoretical models of anxiety emphasize the effect of parenting on development and maintenance of child anxiety.ObjectivesThis research aims to study the nature of correlation between parenting styles and anxiety in children who attend Tirana Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Service.MethodsOne hundred and seventy-five children and 175 their parents filled Spence Children Anxiety Scale (SCAS) and Parenting Styles & Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) was found a significant correlation between parenting styles and anxiety in children.ConclusionsParental overprotection produces vulnerable children who become adults ready to give up in front of life difficulties therefore; it is necessary parents’ awareness in practicing a balance in their parenting styles, in order to reduce children's anxiety.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

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Background It has been suggested that dysfunctional attitudes, cognitive vulnerability to depression, have developmental origins. The present study examined the effects of parental rearing on dysfunctional attitudes in three areas of life with special attention to gender specificity. Methods The subjects were 665 Japanese healthy volunteers. Dysfunctional attitudes were assessed by the 24-item Dysfunctional Attitude Scale, which has the Achievement, Dependency and Self-control subscales. Perceived parental rearing was assessed by the Parental Bonding Instrument, which has the Care and Protection subscales. Results Higher scores of the Achievement (β = 0.293, p