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Mastitis is a major production disease, causing significant economic losses for dairy farmers in South-Asian countries, as well as other parts of the world. Udder health control programs (UHCP) have been established in developed countries as an effective strategy for mastitis control but have not yet been introduced in South-Asian low-income countries like Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. To launch UHCP successfully in dairy herds in South-Asia, it is important to know the current prevalence and risk factors for subclinical mastitis (SCM). Therefore, a narrative literature review was conducted with the aim to describe the dairy sector, the prevalence of SCM and its causal agents, risk factors for mastitis occurrence and the control measures suggested by different studies conducted in the selected countries. The literature revealed that India had the highest cattle population. Milking was mainly done by hand in all of the studied countries. Stall feeding was done in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka and limited access to grazing was also reported in some farms in India and Pakistan. There was substantial variation in the prevalence of SCM between studies in all 4 countries, ranging from about 20% to about 80%, but the average prevalence across all studies was high (50%). The most common causal agents for SCM were non-aureus staphylococci (NAS), Staphylococcus (S.) aureus, Streptococcus spp. and Escherichia (E.) coli. The management related risk factors reported for SCM were stall feeding of cows, a higher stock density, cracked floors, open drains, the presence of flies, poor drainage, peri-parturient diseases, infrequent dung removal and earth floors. The control measures suggested in these studies were to improve the hygiene and sanitation of cows, to improve the cleanliness of farms and milker's hands, to apply dry cow therapy, supplementing micronutrients and routine screening for SCM combined with taking intervention measures like isolation of cows or milking infected cows last, and proper treatment. Also, full hand milking, complete milking, machine milking, and providing feed and water immediately after milking have been recommended. Finally, we show that current literature often studies the same set of (non-manageable) risk factors, so more research is needed to obtain a comprehensive picture of the determinants of SCM. Randomized controlled trials are needed to truly quantify the effect of intervention under field conditions. Altogether, our work gives an overview of the udder health situation in South-Asia and provides the basis for the design of UHCP in this region.

The red ghost crab (Ocypode macrocera) is considered a bioturbator, an environmental architect, a geochemical engineer, a biological engineer, a physical engineer and a climate engineer. Lalkakrar Char (Shoal of red crab) is the paradise habitat of red ghost crabs in Bangladesh. In the near past, thousands of crabs came out of the holes and the shoal turned into the red island of scenic beauty during low tide. It is reported that the abundance of red crabs is declining in this area. The study aims to identify the threats to conservation and find out solutions. It was found that motorcycles and mechanized vans for carrying tourists destroy the residing hole of the little mermaid. Consequently, the red crabs are often found injured or dead on the beach. Resultantly, the oxygenation, organic matter decomposition and bioturbation on the beach soil are highly affected. The exotic high water-consuming trees cause scarcity of groundwater, which in turn, leads to the dryness of the shoal gradually. Incremental pollution accelerates eutrophication, turbidity, and hypoxia. As a result, the abundance of dead jellyfish shows an uptrend. The escalated trend of trash and plastic bottles chokes the penetration of the crab community. The study advocated some conservation activities.&nbsp

Gradual environmental degradation, climate change and diminishing natural resources created extra pressure to adopt an unconventional approach to support export-driven economic activities. “Our common future—Call for action” concept developed by Brundtland has laid the founding stone of going green. As an overpopulated country, Bangladesh encounters various environmental degradation. The study aimed to identify the challenges Bangladesh faces to go green. It was found that depletion of natural resources, climate change, industrial pollution, traditional waste management, brackish shrimp culture, lack of environmental justice, lack 3R technologies, traditional brick kiln, lack of industrial ecology, greenwashing, lack of public awareness and insufficient green energy are the main challenges to go green. The study recommended several solutions to overcome the bottlenecks.&nbsp

Corine Land Cover (CLC) provides comparable digital maps of land use patterns, which is useful for nature conservation and environmental analysis. The component of the CLC aims to gather information relating to the environment on certain priority topics like human disturbances, land use patterns, naturalness, etc. The overall objective of the study was to examine the suitability of the adoption of CLC in Bangladesh and to draw a map considering Bangladesh's perspectives. Empirical data were collected from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Based on the respondents’ perceptions, a CLC for Bangladesh was developed which described 44 classes of land cover organized hierarchically in three levels. The first level defined the land pattern. The second level corresponded to the physical and physiognomic entities in detail; finally, level 3 was composed of acutely defined 44 classes. This map will help to assess the naturalness and land use pattern in Bangladesh.&nbsp

The overarching objective of the study was to assess the impact of habitat fragmentation on the flora and fauna of Bangladesh. It is revealed that both the population size and species richness decrease with the increase of habitat fragmentation. Small populations are more vulnerable to change events, which increases the probability of local extinctions. The migration rate of both flora and fauna is lower in the patches that are remotely located from the mainland or source population. Small populations also tend to suffer from genetic drift and inbreeding depression. The failure of animal movements in the fragment restricts the migration of plant species and their gene flows. It was argued that the natural old forests of Bangladesh are critically fragmented to the point where they are unlikely to maintain the rich level of biodiversity, nor support viable populations of native species of flora and fauna. The probability of local extinction of certain animal or plant groups is higher on the edges. Range-bound animals like Capped Langur, Royal Bengal Tiger, Asian Elephant, Western Hoolock Gibbons, Marbled and Fishing Cat have become critically endangered due to habitat fragmentation. The study developed an integrated management approach highlighting both ex-situ and in-situ conservation.&nbsp

Bangladesh, a low-lying delta country is highly affected by global warming. The problems due to climate change are made much worse by more severe storm surges, droughts and floods in the Sundarbans territory. Therefore, the study aimed to assess the predicted impact of sea level on the coastal and mangrove areas, and to find out the solutions for overcoming the challenges. Based on respondents’ perceptions, the study revealed that minimum sea level rise will destroy the ecosystems of swampy mangroves and the dune biodiversity. A good number of species will be vulnerable and the maximum species on islands will face a high risk of extinction due to the medium level of rising sea. The coasts will be squeezed drastically with a high level of rise. The respondents stressed adopting an integrated approach so that natural and social scientists work together and find out how we project our future to unfold. The integrated approach includes using Dutch technology to prepare dams in the coastal areas; working with the flow of sediment and accelerating the accretion of new lands and investing to make seawalls and other coastal protections to reduce vulnerability sharply. Examining changes in biome areas under two scenarios: 1) shifts in biomes kept pace with shifts in climatic conditions and 2) biomes fail to shift to new areas due to migration limitation are highly warranted.&nbsp

Bangladesh faces both predictable and unpredictable climate change impacts. The Sundarbans Delta is struggling with multiple climatic stressors notably sea level rise, tropical cyclones, storm surges, and salinization. Therefore, the study aims to assess the types of climatic stressors and their impacts on the flora and fauna of the Sundarbans mangrove of Bangladesh. Empirical data were collected from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. It was revealed that dune vegetation, mammals and reptiles are vulnerable to sea level rise. The recent tropical cyclones impacted Sundarbans through three primary mechanisms: wind damage, storm surge, and sedimentation. Many affected areas have become unsuitable for habitation. Strong wind destroys honey bee colonies causing high mortality. Woodpeckers, sea turtles and parrots are vulnerable to cyclones. Storm surges reduce the viability of seeds, seedling germination and seedling recruitment. The recovery of forest dynamics from cyclone damage can be altered by other kinds of changes to the landscape. The cyclones facilitated biological invasion in the highly affected areas. Sundari, the pioneer tree species suffers from various diseases with the increase of salinity. Salinity increases the tree mortality rate by reducing the production of new leaves, leaf longevity and the leaf area. The study advocated for integrated coastal and marine management. Monitoring the impact of climate change on the Royal Bengal Tiger, crocodiles and Sundari tree is highly warranted.&nbsp

An experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, in Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from November 2003 to March 2004 to study the effect of seed rate and row spacing on the yield and yield components of two varieties of mustard. The treatments included two varieties viz. BARI Sharisha-6 and Sambal, two seed rates viz. 7 and 9 kg seeds/ha, and five-row spacings viz. 10, 15, 20 25 and 30 cm. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. It was observed that the variety had a significant influence on all the yield and yield contributing characters except unfilled pods/plants. Higher seed yield was obtained by the variety BARI Sharisha-6. The result showed that seed rate had a significant effect on plant height, no. of filled pods/plant, no. of seeds/pod, 1000-seed weight, seed yield and straw yield. Between the two seed rates 9 kg seeds/ha produced a higher seed yield (1.15t/ha). Yield and all yield contributing characters except harvest index were significantly influenced by row spacing. The highest seed yield (1.429 t/ha) was found in 30 cm row spacing. Among the yield contributing characters only 1000- seed weight was significantly influenced by the interaction of variety and seed rate as well as the interaction of seed rate and row spacing. The interaction of variety and row spacing had a significant influence on unfilled pods/plants, seed yield and straw yield. The highest seed yield (2.01 t/ha) was produced when the seeds of Sambal were sown at 30cm row spacing and the same variety with 10cm row spacing produced the lowest seed yield (0.60 t/ha). The interaction of variety, seed rate and row spacing had no significant influence on yield and yield contributing characteristics of mustard.&nbsp

In Bangladesh, greenwashing, eye washing and green lies go hand in hand. The study strived to identify the areas and ways where greenwashing occurs very frequently in Bangladesh. Empirical data was used in this study. Based on the respondents’ perceptions greenwashing occurs in food, beverage, cosmetics, medicine, brickfield, tourism and transportation sectors very often. The respondents provided policy interventions to control greenwashing. Enacting new laws, regulations and policies is warranted to monitor greenwashing and punish the companies that provide misleading environmental claims. Initiating green audits to evaluate the performances of the companies towards nature conservation is also advocated. Public awareness against misleading advertisements should be increased.

Deadwood plays a critical role in the functioning of forest ecosystems and maintaining biodiversity. The deadwood in the forests of Bangladesh is almost absent due to the scarcity of fuelwood. On the other hand, biodiversity loss occurs in Bangladesh at an alarming rate. The study aimed to assess how deadwood can enrich biodiversity in Bangladesh. Based on the respondents' perceptions, it was revealed that deadwood conservation in the natural habitats can increase the abundance of chickadees, Streak-breasted Woodpecker, Fairy bluebirds, leafbirds, common kestrels, magpie robins, Bay woodpeckers, Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, etc. The endangered small mammals and amphibians can be increased through morticulture. Simultaneously, the decayed deadwood adds organic matter to the forest soil which in turn promotes the natural succession of many plant species. With the support of the key informants, approaches for deadwood conservation in Bangladesh were developed.

The study aimed to assess the responses of the flora of the Sundarbans mangrove of Bangladesh to increased salination. Empirical data was used to identify the adverse effect of salinity. Based on the respondents’ perceptions, it was found that significant off-site occurs in the previous freshwater rivers and canals. The pioneer Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes) are affected by Dieback disease due to increased salinity. Dieback contributes to the loss of canopy coverage and produces weak crowns, with sparse foliage and a good proportion of dead twigs and branches. It was revealed that the declining trend of the abundance of Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) and Mangrove Date Palm (Phoenix paludosa) was observed in their historical habitat areas. The respondents opined that Keora (Sonneratia apetala) and Bain (Avicennia Officinalis) replace Sundari (Heritiera fomes), Bain (Avicennia Officinalis), Kakra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza), Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) and Dhondul tree (Xylocarpus granatum) species. Consequently, the species composition, species richness, natural regeneration, and vertical and horizontal structure of the mangrove are changing due to increased salinity.&nbsp

The overall objective of the study was to examine the impact of climate change on floral diversity through forest mensuration. Only secondary data were used in this study. Inventory data can be integrated with environmental and climatic information to understand the drivers of forest stand dynamics under a changing climate in Bangladesh, where long-term forest data series are absent. Establishing circular plots at the core areas of each conservation can provide sufficient data to understand the natural dynamics. Calculation of biodiversity indices like Species richness, Similarity index, Importance Value Index, Shannon-Wiener Index, Simpson Index, the evenness and Disturbance Index can be effectively used to understand the drivers of forest stand dynamics under a changing climate and anthropogenic disturbances.&nbsp

The study aims to analyze the legal and institutional framework for managing small-scale fisheries (SSF) in Bangladesh. It was found that the overarching institutional framework is embroidered with a paradoxical allocation of business, jurisdictional overlapping, conflict of interests, infirmed coordination and integration mechanism, and down and out fisheries governance. The legal framework is entangled with outworn, scattered, and segmented laws and widespread non-compliance. The existing legal and institutional framework is not well suited to establish SSF’s rights to natural and financial resources. The market chain is controlled by many intermediary groups, which causes a deprivation in income and increases inequality. The hegemony of commercial fishers sidelines SSFs. The chapter recommends the re-allocation of business of the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. Active participation of the SSF in governance and resource management is warranted to minimize common’s tragedy., {"references":["Rahman, Md Mizanur, Regulatory Framework of Small-Scale Fishers in Bangladesh: Safeguard or Jeopardy? (February 15, 2023). In: Islam MM (ed.) Advancing Knowledge of small-scale fisheries in Bangladesh,TBTI Global, Canada,pp.465-473, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3939730 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3939730"]}

Subclinical mastitis (SCM) in water buffalo is responsible for reduced milk yield and quality. This cross-sectional study was carried out to a) estimate the prevalence of SCM, b) identify risk factors associated with SCM, and c) identify farm-level risk factors associated with bulk milk somatic cell count (BMSCC). The buffalo farms included in this study represented five rearing systems: free-range, semi-free-range, household, semi-intensive, and intensive, providing a total of 3491 functional quarters of 880 lactating buffalo on 248 farms. The California mastitis test score was used to identify SCM. Bulk milk samples (n = 242) were used for farm-level BMSCC. Quarter and buffalo-level risk factors for SCM were measured using questionnaires and observations. The overall SCM prevalence was high at 27.9% at the quarter-level (25th and 75th percentiles: 8.3% and 41.7%) and 51.5% at buffalo-level (25th and 75th percentiles: 33.3% and 66.7%). The geometric mean BMSCC was 217,000 cells/mL of milk (ranging from 36,000-1,213,000 cells/mL), which is low on average, but some farms could improve substantially. The buffalo rearing system, udder location (left versus right), teat shape, udder asymmetry, number of milkers, and having a quarantine facility were associated with buffalo udder health. Our findings suggest that mainly using free-range rearing systems may help decrease the prevalence of SCM primarily by employing buffalo breeding and better farm biosecurity, and udder health control strategies can be designed based on our findings.

The overall objective of the study was to assess the impact of invasive lantana on the forest biodiversity, crops and livestock of Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. It was found that lantana suppressed the natural regeneration of tree species through its competitive superiority over seedlings of native species. As a result, homogeneous and mono-specific invaded understorey in the forests. This invasive species covers created demographic instability among tree species, and reduced tree diversity potentially by changing the structure of the forest. Lantana interferes with agricultural harvesting and reduces the economic viability of certain crops. The soil has a lower capacity to absorb water in dense stands of lantana than in grass cover, increasing run-off and therefore soil erosion. The study recommended an integrated management approach to control biological invasion.&nbsp

The study aims to assess the diversity of flora and fauna in the offshore Nijum Island of Bangladesh and examine the probable impact of climate change. Both primary and secondary data were used to identify the plants and animals and to predict future changes in the ecosystem. It was found that Keora (Sonneratia apetala) is the main tree species followed by Kakra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza), Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha), Hargoza (Acanthus ilicifolius), Khalisha (Aegiceras corniculatum) and Bain (Avicennia Officinalis). There are several patches of Hogla (Typha elephantina) throughout the area. It was found that tropical cyclone Aila caused mass devastation, altered vegetation composition and facilitated biological invasion. The climatic factors include sedimentations, inundation stress and increased salinity at landward zones. The study recommended several adaptive measures to overcome the challenges.&nbsp

Rice monoculture in Bangladesh affects the associated biodiversity. The study aimed to identify the alternatives to rice monoculture. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. It was found that tubers notably potato, sweet potato, aroids, taro, yam and cassava cultivation can mitigate the negative impacts of the monoculture and ensure food security. In addition, crop diversification can improve soil health and control insects and pathogens. The study outlined a pathway of cleaner production for environmental sustainability and responsible consumption to minimize wastage.

The natural forests of Bangladesh are decreasing at an alarming rate due to high population density, sharply skewed distribution of lands, and the overexploitation of forest resources. The natural forests have become critically fragmented to the point where they are considered unlikely to maintain a rich level of biodiversity, nor support viable populations of natural and native species. The study aimed to identify the causes and consequences of habitat destruction in Bangladesh. In addition, the relationship between habitat loss and biodiversity loss was assessed. Both primary and secondary data were used for this study. It was revealed that habitat destructions occur in three ways: whole ecosystems are destroyed or converted into farmland, exotic forests and settlements; ecosystems are partially removed, creating 'islands' surrounded by farmland, and ecosystems are degraded by the loss of species and disruption of their ecological processes. Over-population, faulty land ownership patterns and shifting cultivation are prime causal factors of habitat loss. The immediate consequences of habitat destruction are deforestation; loss of existing species; loss of species richness; increased rarity; and loss of genetic diversity. When the habitat becomes more fragmented and isolated, the organisms in them are finding it increasingly difficult to survive, which leads to ultimate extinction. The study outlined integrated conservation management to comply with the core of 'The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)’.&nbsp

Additional file 1: Table S1. PubMed search results (June 24, 2020). Table S2. EMBASE search results (June 24, 2020). Table S3. Web of Science search results (June 24, 2020). Table S4. CINAHL search results (June 24, 2020). Table S5. Background characteristics of the study (N=87). Table S6. Background characteristics of unmet long-term care needs study (N=14). Table S7. Quality assessment of the cross-sectional studies to unmet needs. Table S8. Quality assessment of the Cohort studies related to unmet needs. Table S9. Quality assessment of the Cross-sectional studies related to long-term care. Table S10. Quality assessment of the Cohort-sectional studies related to long-term care. Figure S1. Country-specific prevalence for forgone healthcare due to cost-related reasons among older people, 65 years and above. Figure S2. Unmet needs for healthcare among older people due to any reason by country.

The overall objective of the study was to assess the change in biodiversity of the Dewapara Sal forests of Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. It was found that the exotic tree species replaced the indigenous species. Currently, climbers are absent in these forests. There is no trace of coarse woody debris and mycorrhizal association. Consequently, the species richness, the diversity index (Shannon-Wiener index) and evenness (Pielou's index) were very low. Due to poor species richness, the concentration of dominance (Simpson index) was very high. The Asiatic Black Bear, Sambar Deer, Spotted Dear, Barking Deer and Red Frog disappeared just four decades ago. The Leopard Cat, Fishing Cat, Jungle Cat, Indian Civet and Capped Langur reached extinction in recent years. The study recommended an integrated conservation strategy to avoid further degradation.&nbsp

Massive deforestation caused the fragmentation of natural forests in Bangladesh. Landscape restoration requires the management of forest patches in a spatially and temporally dynamic landscape matrix. Therefore, the study aimed to explore how the forest matrix can enrich the depleted biodiversity in the natural forest remnants. Empirical data were collected from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The study revealed that the fragments or remnants of natural forests can maintain connectivity with the neighbouring fragments through the matrix, which can play the role of a corridor for the movements of wild animals across the landscape. It reduces the edge effects on the threatened species and can protect them from extinction. Matrix can influence the biodiversity patterns in the mosaics and the vegetation-wildlife relationship. It is highly important to give major attention to matrix management for enriching biological diversity.

The study aimed to assess the role of riparian vegetation in the environmental sustainability of Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. The respondents opined that the riparian vegetation of Bangladesh can play a major role in ecological stability, and biofiltration, in preventing soil erosion and conserving biodiversity. As a greenbelt, it can be used as a windbreak to protect crops, water sources, soils and settlements during the cyclone, storm surges and flooding. They can provide excellent habitats for many rare and threatened species of fishes, crustaceans, amphibians, reptiles, herbivores, mammals and birds. The riparian zones can enrich degraded biodiversity and provide habitats for isolated communities and endangered species. Based on the respondents’ perceptions an integrated conservation study was developed.&nbsp

The Himchari National Park was highly rich in floral diversity and acted as a greenbelt against tropical cyclones in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. The park has been degraded severely and now consists of isolated patches of trees, and is primarily dominated by scattered scrub vegetation. Therefore, the study aimed to identify the factors causing the degradation. Based on empirical data collected through personal interviews and focus group discussions, it was revealed that conversion of forest land, clearing and level of hills, rampant over-exploitation of the forest resources, overload of tourism, Rohingya flux, exotic plantations and ineffective ecomanagement were identified as the main causal factors of the degradation. An integrated conservation approach was developed with the help of the respondents considering the local ground.

The overarching objective of the study was to assess the impact of climate change on the Nypa Palm (Nypa frutican) and associated species of the Sundarbans mangrove of Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. It was revealed that faster sedimentation degrades the habitat of the Nypa. The inland Nypa is being disappeared rapidly due to increased salinity. Salinity causes a major threat to the succession of Nypa. The salinity weakens the potentiality of natural regeneration by reducing the viability of seeds, seedling germination and seedling recruitment. The Nypa mortality rate is increased due to increased salinity. The production of new leaves, leaf longevity and the leaf area, net photosynthesis rate, stomata conductance and transpiration rate of leaves are being reduced. The changes in the composition and abundance of this sensitive indicator species provide the specific biological signal of the climate change impacts.&nbsp

The study aims to assess the impact of climate change on the coastal natural resources of Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used to identify the natural resources and the adverse effect of climate change on them. It was found that the dune vegetation is highly impacted by frequent tropical cyclones like Sidr, Nargis, Bijli, Aila and Mahashen. The highly affected areas became unsuitable for habitation till 2020. The brackish water from the Bay of Bengal is invading freshwater bodies percolating deep into the soil. The increasing trend of salinity disrupts the migration routes contributing to the decreasing trend of Hilsha abundance. The respondents opined that declining trends in both Nypa palm and mangrove date palm were observed in the littoral areas. The number of climate refugees is increasing day by day. It was noted that Bengal Tigers have been suffering from various diseases by drinking saline water, which eventually affects the normal behaviour of this big cat. The study recommended several mitigation measures: preparing a risk atlas, ecosystem-based solutions, climate-resilient livelihoods through community engagements, process-based modelling of agroforestry in saline areas and greening the blue to overcome the challenges.&nbsp

The natural forest areas and native forest tree species in Bangladesh are decreasing at an alarming rate to cope with increased population pressure. Instead of traditional forest management, plantation forestry and agroforestry practices have become an increasingly important source of timber, firewood, pole and posts. Teak, Acacia, Mahogany and Eucalyptus are the most abundant exotic species. The influences of exotic tree plantations on environmental parameters are still largely unknown. Hence, the study aimed to assess the pros and cons of the exotic plantation in Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. It was found that exotic plantation degrades soil health, alters habitat substantially for native flora and fauna, spreads pests and pathogens and facilitates biological invasion in the natural habitats. It was argued that an exotic plantation is better than a zero plantation in bare/fallow land for restoring green coverage. The study recommended some measures to minimize the negative impacts. Exotic plantations in North Bengal should be halted to avoid further desertification.&nbsp

The overall objective of the study was to assess the levels of human impacts on nature based on the European hemeroby approach in Bangladesh. Empirical data was used in this study. Based on the respondents’ perceptions a set of parameters was developed and compiled in a matrix. Forest, vegetation, landscape and biodiversity were identified as the scale of naturalness. It was found that ahemorobic (disturbance-free) habitats are absent in Bangladesh. The natural forest remnants are highly degraded and fragmented. The probability of emerging natural successional forests is disappeared due to the massive destruction of natural regeneration. The natural landscape is degraded by unplanned urbanization and industrialization. Biodiversity is in peril due to natural habitat destruction, logging and poaching. The study advocated for a mitigation strategy to heal nature.&nbsp

Blind/Visually Impaired (VI) youth of Bangladesh face a significant level of segregation and oppression compared to all people with disabilities living in the country. They are excluded from mainstream education and also face severe inaccessibility in terms of infrastructure and resources. This study aimed to identify the current barriers and facilitators to the participation of blind/VI students in higher education in Bangladesh. A Qualitative method was used for this study where semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 16 respondents consisting of higher education students and stakeholders that were disability advocates. Six major themes were identified including issues of equity and equality, structural problems within the system, policies and advocacy movements, social views towards persons with disabilities, mental health and well-being, and issues related to accessibility in education. Prevalence of inequality in educational institutions, structural problems within the system, the gap between policy and practice regarding disability rights, negative social views towards persons with visual disabilities, lack of mental health facilities in the institutions, and inaccessible learning environment in terms of resources and infrastructure are the key barriers to the higher education of VI students in Bangladesh. Social awareness, specific policies for VI students, along with the proper implementation of the current policies, and a specific focus on accessibility issues are required to create a better and accessible learning environment for students with Visual Impairment in Bangladesh.

Per capita forestland in Bangladesh is declining at an alarming rate. The recurrent anthropogenic disturbances have rendered the natural forests inhospitable for the natural regeneration and growth of wild plant associates, causing a net loss of biodiversity. Instead of native species plantation, exotic species have become an increasingly important source of timber, which negatively impacts the natural habitats. Hence, the study explored different options for native species plantation based on habitat types and the level of degradation. It is revealed that natural succession is suitable for increasing the canopy coverage in natural forest areas. In the core and buffer zones of each forest natural regeneration should be facilitated to maintain the ecological balance and to ensure continuous forest coverage. In addition, direct seeding in the buffer zone and degraded forest areas can improve the naturalness. Advanced regeneration of rare or endangered species can protect the species from extinction. Very fast-growing and timbering native species should be planted in the encroached areas. The deep-rooted species can reinforce riverbanks against erosion better than the shallow-rooted ground cover. Trees with large canopies and deep roots can protect the coastal belt. Screw pine (Pandanus) can grow on dunes and has thick ‘prop roots’ to anchor itself in the loose sand. Tanguya plantation should consist of growing annual crops along with forest trees during the early establishment of forest plantations on the hills. Fast-growing and timbering trees can increase the green cover in the fallow land. The ornamental trees simultaneously can increase the green cover and beauty in urban areas.

Aphis craccivora Koch. is one of the most destructive pests of groundnut, which causes yield losses and transmits rosette virus and catjang disease. The study aimed to observe the seasonal abundance of Aphis craccivora Koch. together with the degree of infestation on 30 groundnut cultivars. The correlations between the age of the plant, plant height, pod yield and aphid infestation were also examined. Experiments were carried out at the Genetics and Plant Breeding Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. Seeds of cultivars were collected from the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Area (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India and Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with three replications per treatment. Duncan's Multiple Range tests (DMRT) were used to measure specific differences between pairs of means. The results indicated that the abundance of aphids gradually increased from 45 days after planting and reached the peak within 73 days, and then the aphid population gradually declined. Among the cultivars tested, the cultivar DG-2 was found highly susceptible to aphid and ICGV 86635 was less susceptible. The results of the present investigation would be of immense importance in controlling groundnut aphid infestation by using less susceptible groundnut cultivars and adjusting the time of planting.&nbsp

A green economy results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. A green economy can provide growth-positive, employment-positive, and poverty-negative in Bangladesh. The study aims to identify the bottlenecks associated with the green economy in Bangladesh and find out green solutions. It was revealed that the 'grow first, clean up later' concept degrades the environment. Climate change and diminishing natural resources created an extra threat to sustainability. Toxic agriculture and the monoculture of rice impacted agrobiodiversity and generated many health hazards. Food adulteration has become a custom and tradition in the country, which is toxic, regardless of the method of intake. Some green solutions like green energy, green agriculture, green job, green transportation, green waste management, 3R, go green, biodiversity conservation, ecotourism, green investment and food security are recommended to overcome the challenges.&nbsp

The overarching objective of the study was to assess the role of forestation in maintaining ecological integrity in Bangladesh. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. It was found that environmental degradation can be improved through plantation and forestation. Afforestation can combat the adverse effect of climate change and improve the existing microclimatic pattern. The forestation can act as a greenbelt against tropical cyclones in the coastal areas. The depleted biodiversity can be enriched by controlling incremental biological Invasion. It can ease riparian habitat complexity and improve soil qualities. The study recommended integrated forest management emphasizing riparian plantation, fallow land plantation, gap filling, natural succession, natural regeneration and community-based coastal forestation.&nbsp

The study aims to assess the diversity of flora and fauna on the shore of Kuakata of Bangladesh and examine the probable impact of climate change. Both primary and secondary data were used to identify the plants and animals and to predict future changes in the ecosystem. It was found that there are uneven and mixed patches of trees dominated by Keora (Sonneratia apetala) and Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) in the Fatra and Gangamati mangrove forests. The pioneer species Sundari (Heritiera fomes) trees are occasionally distributed in these forests. Golpata (Nypa fruticans) and Hantol (Phoenix paludosa) are the indicator plant species of these ecosystems. Kakra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) and Pashur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) have become rare species though they were abundant a few decades back. Sporadic patches of Hogla (Typha elephantina) and Golpata exist throughout the area. The plant species composition differs greatly within the forests and the canopy closure is a mosaic. It was found that tropical cyclone Aila caused mass devastation, altered vegetation composition and facilitated biological invasion. The climatic factors include sedimentations, inundation stress and increased salinity at the mangroves. The study recommended several mitigation measures to overcome the challenges.&nbsp

Tea is one of the most important cash crops in Bangladesh, playing a significant role in food security, poverty alleviation, employment, and the economy. As a rain-fed crop, tea cultivation depends on micro-climatic conditions for optimal growth. Bangladesh observed extreme weather and climate events over the last couple of decades. Bangladesh is experiencing the frequency of climate variations and extreme weather events, like prolonged drought, heavy rainfall, and late winter spells. The study area was carried out at Malnicherra tea estate in Sylhet district to correlate the micro-climatic variables to tea productivity. The study also examines the trend of micro-climatic variables like maximum temperature, minimum temperature, and rainfall by using the time series data from 2012 to 2017. The simple linear regressions reveal that temperature and rainfall influence tea production. Tea production was negatively impacted by drought and excessive rainfall. Heavy rains eroded the top fertile soil and washed away soil nutrients. The yield of tea leaf was declining at the rate of 110.8 kg/ha/year. There was a high negative relationship between mean maximum temperature and yield of tea. The study recommends an integrated adaptive measure to minimize adverse effects.

The southern part of Bangladesh is positioned on the orifice of Bay of Bengal and is abundant with marine fisheries' huge potential. Whereas marine resources are considered one of the essential sources of future economic development for many countries, Bangladesh is still lagging in this regard. The country cannot materialise full potentials of marine fisheries since more than 90% of fishers use artisanal fishing equipment, and the reasons behind being artisanal fishers are multifaceted. However, it is crucial to know the challenges of artisanal fishers in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This study explored the challenges associated with artisanal fisheries and finds out the solution to help achieve SDGs by providing recommendations. This study was conducted in one of the islands in Bangladesh's coastal area named Sonadia Island to unveil the challenges. Mainly primary data was collected through questionnaire and focus group discussion with the local government elected representative, fishermen association leader, representative of civil society and Upazila level government officials. Secondary data was used to analyse the regulatory and institutional framework. The targets of SDGs were aligned with the importance of artisanal fisheries and the rights of the fishermen. Piracy, local credit system, and complex market chain were identified as significant challenges. Pro-activeness of different government departments can improve the scenario drastically.

The degradation of freshwater ecosystems has become a global concern, in particular, the critical conditions of rivers in Bangladesh demand a monitoring programme through the assessment of bioindicator organisms. Macroinvertebrates as prominent bioindicators are widely used for assessing the health of aquatic ecosystems. Recent technological advances have enabled routine assessment with the genomic characterization of macroinvertebrates using different metagenetic techniques such as DNA barcoding for individual specimen identification, metabarcoding for multi-species identification of bulk samples and mitochondrial metagenomics for extraction of mitogenomes from mixed samples. In this thesis, I commence by generating Cytochrome Oxidase subunit (COI) barcodes for Bangladeshi freshwater macroinvertebrates belonging to the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Diptera, Gastropoda and Bivalvia. These barcodes can be used as a DNA reference library for species identification in metabarcoding of macroinvertebrates. I also aim for exploring complete mitogenomes from selected macroinvertebrates using a mitochondrial metagenomic pipeline. I carry out phylogenetic analysis with protein-coding genes that reveals the evolutionary relationship of Bangladeshi macroinvertebrate lineages and also support deeper level identification of barcodes placing them into the phylogenetic tree (chapter 2). In chapter 3, I assess some methodological aspects of the metabarcoding pipeline required for diversity estimation from complex bulk samples of macroinvertebrates in large-scale biomonitoring programmes. These include preparation of bulk macroinvertebrate samples, optimization of the procedure of homogenization of samples required for DNA extraction, strategies for DNA pooling from these extracts, choice of robust universal primers, and viable OTU clustering for reliable diversity estimation. The results have implications for the optimization and standardization of these steps in metabarcoding of freshwater macroinvertebrates. In chapter 4, I apply the metabarcoding technique to establish the macroinvertebrate diversity and impact of various types of anthropogenic disturbances on the freshwater macroinvertebrates in highland and lowland rivers. The results document high diversity, local endemicity and pronounced responses to disturbance in largely unexplored but threatened habitats of Bangladesh. My investigations manifest the viability of metagenetic techniques for applied conservation management as a step towards building a biomonitoring system in freshwater ecosystems globally. Open Access

Additional file 1. Student questionnaire

Additional file 1: Figure S1. Number of data points by country. Figure S2. Detail year-specific observed and predicted coverage of INSD by area of residence (national, urban, and rural). Figure S3. Detail year-specific observed and predicted coverage of SBA by area of residence (national, urban, and rural). Table S1. Country specific data sources. Table S2. Percentage change in coverage of INSD and SBA visits between 2000 and 2030. Table S3. Coverage of INSD among adult women aged 20-49 years in 54 low- and middle-income countries, 2000-2030. Table S4. Coverage of SBA among adult women aged 20-49 years in 54 low- and middle-income countries, 2000-2030. Table S5. Coverage of INSD among adolescents according to area of residence in 54 low- and middle-income countries, 2000-2030. Table S6. Coverage of SBA among adolescents according to area of residence in 54 low- and middle-income countries, 2000-2030. Table S7. Coverage of institutional delivery among adolescent according to wealth quintile in LMICs, 2000-2030. Table S8. Coverage of skilled birth attendants among adolescent according to wealth quintile in LMICs, 2000-2030. Table S9. Changes in the magnitude of socio-economic inequality in access to delivery care, 2000-2030. Table S10. Determinants of access to facility delivery and skilled birth attendants at births among women aged 20-35 years, 54 low-and middle-income countries. Table S11. Determinants of access to facility delivery and skilled birth attendants at births among women aged 36 years or more, 54 low-and middle-income countries. Table S12. Posterior mean difference by considering with and without country level predictors for INSD. Table S13. Posterior mean difference by considering with and without country level predictors for SBA. Table S14. Posterior mean difference by altering prior distribution on hyperparameters for INSD. Table S15. Posterior mean difference by altering prior distribution on hyperparameters for SBA. Table S16. National level estimate of Gelman Rubin Potential scale reduction factors (PSRF) for INSD. Table S17. National level estimate of Gelman Rubin Potential scale reduction factors (PSRF) for SBA. e-method 1. Definitions and calculation procedure of the coverage of INSD and SBA. e-method 2. Bayesian model. e-method 3. Sensitivity analysis. e-method 4. Bayesian model for determinant analysis.

Additional file 1: Supplemental appendix. Table S1. Incidence of catastrophic health expenditure by different definitions and thresholds, Bangladesh (n=39,124). Table S2: Heckman regression results for the total amount of OOP health payments, Bangladesh 2017 (N=39,124).

The characteristic features of undrained responses of granular materials, for example, stress ratio at instability ( η IS) and phase transformation ( η PT) states and the critical state (CS) behaviour, are often influenced by the consolidation history. However, there are limited studies in the literature, and a consensus has not yet been reached. This study combined the triaxial test of yellow silty sand and the three-dimensional discrete element method (DEM) simulation of ellipsoid particles under a triaxial condition to evaluate the effect of isotropic and K 0 consolidations. Triaxial test data formed non-unique CS lines (CSLs) in the e–log(p′) space for isotropic and K 0 tests, whereas the CSL was unique for DEM simulations; where e and p′ are the void ratio and mean effective stress, respectively. The micromechanical quantities, coordination number (C N) and fabric anisotropy (F vM) at the CS, also showed a unique relation with p′. The characteristic features, η IS and η PT, showed good correlation with the state parameter (ψ ) and the density indices. It was found that the η IS decreased with ψ, and the correlation was dependent on consolidation type. The micromechanical analysis suggested that F vM is a better parameter than C N to characterise the macromechanical behaviour. This study unambiguously supports the applicability of CS theory and provides insights into micromechanics of granular materials.

Purpose This paper aims to assess the performance of achieving the targets of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by aligning with the recent initiatives taken by different ministries and divisions in Bangladesh. It also examines the institutional challenges associated with the implementation of SDGs. Design/methodology/approach Both primary and secondary data were analysed by applying different techniques. The initiatives taken by various ministries and divisions of Bangladesh resonated partially with 84 targets of SDGs. Findings Ambiguous mandates of different ministries and divisions have caused overlapping jurisdiction, followed by conflicts of interest and lack of cohesion. Inaccurate stakeholder analysis, data unavailability, lack of competency and accountability, and a top-down policy approach can be considered as the major institutional bottlenecks in achieving SDGs. Originality/value This paper advocates revising the map to incorporate the right stakeholders to avoid erroneous monitoring, evaluation, and finally, inaccurate reporting. The reallocation of business for ministries and divisions is warranted to abolish jurisdictional overlapping and conflict of interests and make SDGs friendly. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic recession, Bangladesh may be able to multiply its achievement with the same resources and efforts by addressing those drawbacks.

The study aims to analyze the legal and institutional framework for managing small-scale fisheries (SSF) in Bangladesh. It was found that the overarching institutional framework is embroidered with a paradoxical allocation of business, jurisdictional overlapping, conflict of interests, infirmed coordination and integration mechanism, and down and out fisheries governance. The legal framework is entangled with outworn, scattered, and segmented laws and widespread non-compliance. The existing legal and institutional framework is not well suited to establish SSF���s rights to natural and financial resources. The market chain is controlled by many intermediary groups, which causes a deprivation in income and increases inequality. The hegemony of commercial fishers sidelines SSFs. The chapter recommends the re-allocation of business of the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. Active participation of the SSF in governance and resource management is warranted to minimize common���s tragedy.

Additional file1: Appendix section 1. Survey characteristics. Appendix section 2. Health service indicators. Appendix section 3. The definitions of household consumption expenditure and out-of-pocket health payment, estimation of financial burden and incidence of catastrophic health expenditure at different threshold. Appendix section 4: Predictor variables for trend and projection analysis and data of internally displaced people and definition of population density. Appendix section 5. Predictor variables used in the determinant analyses. Appendix section 6. Statistical analysis. Appendix section 7. National-level health service coverage: slope index of inequality. Appendix section 8. Subnational-level catastrophic health expenditure by place of residence. Appendix section 9. Subnational-level catastrophic health expenditure: slope index of inequality and wealth quintile-specific incidence.

Besides maintaining health precautions, vaccination has been the only prevention from SARS-CoV-2, though no clinically proved 100% effective vaccine has been developed till date. At this stage, to withhold the debris of this pandemic, experts need to know the impact of the vaccine efficacy rate's threshold and how long this pandemic may extent with vaccines that have different efficacy rates. In this article, a mathematical model study has been done on the importance of vaccination and vaccine efficiency rate during an ongoing pandemic. We simulated a five compartment mathematical model to analyze the pandemic scenario in both California, and whole U.S. We considered four vaccines, Pfizer, Moderna, AstraZeneca, and Johnson and Johnson, which are being used rigorously to control the COVID-19 pandemic, in addition with two special cases: a vaccine with 100% efficacy rate and no vaccine under use. Both the infection and death rates are very high in California. Our model suggests that the pandemic situation in California will be under control in the last quartile of the year 2023 if frequent vaccination is continued with the Pfizer vaccine. During this time, six waves will happen from the beginning of the immunization where the case fatality and recovery rates will be 1.697% and 98.30%, respectively. However, according to the considered model, this period might be extended to the mid of 2024 when vaccines with lower efficacy rates are used. The more effective a vaccine, the less people suffer from this malign infection. Although specific groups of people get prioritized initially, mass vaccination is needed to control the spread of the disease.

The coral reefs' crisis is increasing, with the combined effects of natural and anthropogenic disturbances. It is predicted that coral reefs could extinct soon from the world. Bangladesh has only one coral Island named Saint Martin, locally known as 'Narikel Jinjira'. This is one of the most popular tourist spots in Bangladesh, entertaining thousands of tourists per year due to its unique landscape, blue water, and coral colonies' presence. This Island lost most of the coral in recent times. The coral reef ecosystem management needs to focus on the reformation of the legal and institutional frameworks for enhancing the local administration's capabilities to address the adverse effects of the stressors and promote the ecosystem services by improving the resilience. The study aims at analysing the existing institutional and legal frameworks for conserving the coral reefs. To collect data, fieldwork was conducted at Saint Martin Island and Teknaf Upazila. The related literature on legal documents was reviewed critically. It is found that despite having legal mechanisms and institutional frameworks, non-compliances with laws and poor coordination among different sectors are widespread, resulting in severe degradation of coral resources. In most of the laws, robust institutional arrangements were ignored. The study recommends integrating the legal and institutional frameworks governing the environment, tourism, and fisheries sectors. Effective marine governance, increasing coordination among different sectors, amending some existing rules, and activating MCS (monitoring, control, surveillance) system can improve the scenario.

The study aimed to assess Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation's restaurants' customer satisfaction to improve quality and services. It was found that the price of the food items was not extensive comparing to international standards, but expensive in the country context. It takes an extended time in-between ordering and delivery. The manner and etiquette of the waiters and other restaurant service people were not up to the mark. Customers enjoy a healthy environment during food consumption. The food quality is not appropriately controlled, and less quantity of food, notably inferior portion, was served, which was treated as cheating activities. The study found that the outside washroom and interior designs were not satisfactory. Hence, the restaurant needs to take the initiative to bring more mobility for ensuring prompt service where customers will not have to wait long for food. A training program is required to improve human resources' professionalism, including waiters/waitresses and kitchen staff. Special attention is warranted on food portioning so that the customers are not cheated.

Bangladesh, one of the most emerging economies of the world, has taken a series of development initiatives on stride towards prosperity over the last 47 years of its independence. In response to this, recently she has undertaken a transformative and globally agreed agenda 2030 on the way to build a sustainable country. To translate the development aspirations into reality, Bangladesh Public Administration Training Centre (BPATC) has aligned the course curricula to create patriotic, competent and professional civil servants dedicated to public interest. The study aimed at analyzing whether the newly recruited civil servants are equipped enough to transform government development initiatives into reality. Here effectiveness of foundation training was critically evaluated by comparing the knowledge of before and after training and by examining their abilities to prioritize targets of SDGs. The study was both qualitative and quantitative in nature. Primary data was collected from all participants of the 66th foundation training course using a structured questionnaire on arrival and departure date. The results show that the Foundation Training has a significant impact on understanding and gaining knowledge regarding SDGs and selecting the area that should get preference while implementing SDGs. Standardized understanding about SDGs among civil servants, especially at entry level usually pick up the pace of its implementation and ultimately bridge the knowledge gap. This training will help them in implementing SDGs in the public sectors of Bangladesh.

The study aimed to understand where organizations currently stand about the allocation of business and achievement of the 2030 Agenda targets. Both primary and secondary data were used in this research. Secondary data sources were allocation of business, citizen charter, annual report, annual performance agreement (APA), budget allocation, current projects/programs, and completed projects. The allocation of 59 organizations' business was critically reviewed to understand their roles and responsibilities and find out the constraints in achieving the SDGs. It was found that the public sectors are working to achieve 111 targets of the SDGs out of 169. It can be considered remarkable progress made by any country in the world. Most of the targets were attended partially, and the full attainment is required to boost up the progress. On the other hand, every Ministry is not performing equally. There are dots in the allocation of business of different ministries and divisions. Allocations of various public institutions' businesses are not befitted to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG. Based on this research's findings, further in-depth analysis should be carried on each organization separately.