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Rising atmospheric [CO2] has been shown to impact plant primary metabolism and the severity of Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat. In this study, we evaluated how changes in grain nutritional content due to growth at elevated [CO2] affected Fusarium graminearum growth and mycotoxin production. Susceptible (Norm) and moderately resistant (Alsen) hard spring wheat grains that had been grown at ambient (400 ppm) or elevated [CO2] (800 ppm) were independently inoculated with two F. graminearum fungal strains, which produce the trichothecene mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol. Under higher [CO2], FHB-susceptible and moderately resistant wheat had disproportionate losses in protein and mineral contents, with Alsen being more severely impacted. Furthermore, the F. graminearum strain 9F1 had increased mycotoxin biosynthesis in response to the loss of wheat nutritional content in Alsen. Our results demonstrate that future [CO2] conditions may provide a strain-specific pathogenic advantage on hosts, with greater losses in nutritional content.

Biodiesel is a renewable alternative diesel fuel made from plant oils, waste cooking greases and animal fats. Its’ most common form is fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) from transesterification of lipids and methanol. Biodiesel has physical properties that compare well with conventional diesel fuel (petrodiesel). However, biodiesel has poor cold flow properties that must be monitored in cold weather. In this work, three correlation models are introduced that accurately calculate the cold filter plugging point (CFPP) of biodiesel. The models were developed using measured CFPP data from neat (unblended) biodiesel fuels and 24 binary biodiesel admixtures. The biodiesel fuels studied were from canola, palm and soybean oils and yellow grease (CaME, PME, SME and YGME). The solid-liquid equilibrium (SLE) model required accurate concentration, melting point (MP) and enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus) data for each FAME species in the mixture. These data were used to infer the SLE phase transition temperature (TSLE) of the ...

Rising atmospheric [CO

Biodiesel is a renewable alternative diesel fuel made from plant oils and animal fats. In the form of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), it is usually obtained by transesterification of plant oil or animal fat with methanol in the presence of catalyst. Most of the fuel properties of biodiesel compare well with conventional diesel fuel (petrodiesel). One major disadvantage of biodiesel is its relatively poor cold flow properties which must be monitored during cold weather in moderate temperature climates. Two correlation models were developed to accurately calculate the cloud point (CP) of biodiesel. Both models were developed using measured CP data from binary admixtures of biodiesel fuels made from canola, palm, and soybean oils and yellow grease (CaME, PME, SME, and YGME). One model was based on solid–liquid equilibrium (SLE) thermodynamics in organic mixtures. This model required fatty acid concentrations (FA profile) and melting point (MP) and enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus) data for each FAME species in th...

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel that is typically composed of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) from transesterification of fats or plant oils with methanol. When blended with conventional diesel fuels, biodiesel improves combustion quality and reduces harmful exhaust emissions. On the other hand, biodiesel has poor cold flow properties that can compromise its use during cold weather in moderate temperature climates. In the present study, nine mathematical models were proposed to calculate the cloud point (CP) of biodiesel based on the concentrations and melting properties of the FAME components. Experimental data were compiled for four biodiesel fuels made from canola, palm and soybean oils and yellow grease (CaME, PME, SME and YGME) plus 24 binary admixtures of these fuels. Four models were inferred from multiple regression analysis of CP as functions of Xi = (MPixi; MPi = melting point and xi = mole fraction of the FAME species). These models yielded high correlation coefficients (R2 ≥ 0.997) and low absolute average deviations (AAD) ≤ 0.60 K from analysis of calculated (CPcalc) versus measured data. The results helped to identify species that influenced the CP of FAME mixtures. Five additional models based on the weighted saturation factor (wSF) index as an independent variable for correlating the CP of biodiesel were inferred. The indices were calculated as weighted sums of Xi terms for species present in the FAME mixtures. Both an arbitrarily assigned weight factor (wi) and the MPi of the pure FAME species were used to calculate the wSF indices. The wSF index-based models were developed from regression analysis of FA profile and experimental CP data for the 28 FAME mixtures. Four models yielded R2 = 0.968–0.977 and AAD ≤ 0.73 from analysis of CPcalc versus measured CP data.

Recently, ruthenium-catalyzed isomerization–decarboxylation of fatty acids to give alkene mixtures was reported. When the substrate was oleic acid, the reaction yielded a mixture consisting of heptadecene isomers. In this work, we report the compositional analysis of the mixture obtained by triruthenium dodecacarbonyl catalyzed decarboxylation of oleic acid. Surprisingly, the most prominent single compound identified was heptadecane at approximately 18 wt %. A mixture of heptadecene isomers constituted the greatest percentage of the product (>75%), where all positional isomers were confirmed by GC–MS analysis of dimethyl disulfide derivatives of the product. Besides these components, minor amounts of alkyl aromatics, each with a total of 17 carbons atoms, among them undecyl benzene, were observed. Minor amounts of other compounds, such as shorter-chain hydrocarbons and polyunsaturated C17 compounds, were also observed. A reaction pathway to explain the existence of these products is proposed. Heptadecenes...

Three new iso-oleic ester derivatives (i.e., isopropyl ester (IOA-iPrE, 6), n-butyl ester (IOA-n-BuE, 7), and 2-ethylhexyl ester (IOA-2-EHE, 8)) were synthesized from iso-oleic acid (IOA, 4) using a standard esterification method. These esterified alcohols were chosen because of their bulky and branched-chain alkyl groups which can reduce melting point in comparison to a smaller alkyl group such as methyl ester. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), cloud point and pour point results showed that esters 6, 7, and 8 had much lower melting transition temperatures and cold flow properties than the methyl (IOA–FAME, 5) and parent 4. The oxidative and thermal stability by pressure (P-DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) results also showed a very similar trend where the bulkier and branched-chain alkyl esters had better stability than the smaller headgroup esters.

Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel derived mainly from the transesterification of plant oils with methanol or ethanol. This fuel is generally made from commodity oils such as canola, palm or soybean and has a number of properties that make it compatible in compression-ignition engines. Despite its many advantages, biodiesel has poor cold flow properties that may impact its deployment during cooler months in moderate temperature climates. This work is a study on the use of skeletally branched-chain-fatty acid methyl esters (BC-FAME) as additives and diluents to decrease the cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP) of biodiesel. Two BC-FAME, methyl iso-oleate and methyl iso-stearate isomers (Me iso-C18:1 and Me iso-C18:0), were tested in mixtures with fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) of canola, palm and soybean oil (CaME, PME and SME). Results showed that mixing linear FAME with up to 2 mass% BC-FAME did not greatly affect CP, PP or kinematic viscosity (ν) relative to the unmixed biodiesel fuels. In contrast, higher concentrations of BC-FAME, namely between 17 and 39 mass%, significantly improved CP and PP without raising ν in excess of limits in the biodiesel fuel standard specification ASTM D 6751. Furthermore, it is shown that biodiesel/Me iso-C18:0 mixtures matched or exceeded the performance of biodiesel/Me iso-C18:1 mixtures in terms of decreasing CP and PP under certain conditions. This was taken as evidence that additives or diluents with chemical structures based on long-chain saturated chains may be more effective at reducing the cold flow properties of mixtures with biodiesel than structures based on long-chain unsaturated chains.

Rice bran oil contains beneficial compounds that contribute to its resistance to oxidation, as well as the health of consumers. However, concerns have surfaced in recent years related to the heavy metal content of rice and rice-derived products. Rice is known to take up arsenic at a higher rate than other grain crops. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization recently set an acceptable limit of 0.2 μg/g of arsenic in rice, but no limits have been set for other edible products such as rice bran oil. Furthermore, arsenic levels in rice bran oil have not been thoroughly investigated. In this work we characterized both crude and refined rice bran oils, including detailed chemical composition, analysis of bioactive lipids, and a multi-faceted approach for assessing prior oxidative history and stability of rice bran oils. We also analyzed levels of arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, and zinc. Metal concentrations were verified through two independent analytical laboratories. Concentrations of lead and cadmium in rice bran oils were generally low. Zinc concentrations were detectable but low relative to daily dietary allowances. Arsenic and mercury concentrations differed between the methods used to collect the data. We explore in this work the origins of these differences. Practical applications: Rice absorbs arsenic at a high rate relative to other crops, which has lead to increased consumer concern regarding toxic metal contaminants in rice and rice products. Despite the recent interest in this topic and limited work by the US FDA to test arsenic levels in rice, metal concentrations in rice bran oils have remained unexplored. In this work, we offer a complete characterization of crude and refined rice bran oils, including analysis of arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, and zinc. This work explores the utility of different ICP methods for heavy metals analysis, and the work described here may provide context for much of the recent press surrounding metal contaminants in rice. Heavy metal concentrations in eight different rice bran oils (µg/g). The relative sizes of metal ions are proportional to their most common ionic radius.

Biodiesel has several advantages compared to conventional diesel fuel (petrodiesel). Nevertheless, biodiesel has poor cold flow properties that may restrict its use in moderate climates. It is essential that the cold flow properties of biodiesel and its blends with petrodiesel be measured as accurately as possible. This work provides an overview of the important cold flow properties and how they are analyzed. The utility of cloud point (CP), pour point (PP), and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) in evaluating biodiesel at low temperatures is discussed. Advantages and limitations of the experimental methods are evaluated. Finally, the use of sub-ambient differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) in the study of low temperature phase behavior of biodiesel is examined.

A series of 26 different antioxidants and commercial antioxidant packages designed for petroleum-based materials, containing both natural and synthetic-based materials, were evaluated with dimeric coconut-oleic estolide 2-ethylhexyl ester (2-EH), a bio-based material. The different antioxidants were categorized into different classes of phenolic, aminic, and blended/others materials. The oxidation onset temperatures (OT) using non-isothermal pressurized differential scanning calorimetry (PDSC) were measured and recorded under previously reported standard conditions. The aminic series gave the best resistance to oxidation as defined by the PDSC method with OT of 246.6 and 244.7 °C for the best two performers, which was a 38 °C improvement over the uninhibited or unformulated dimer estolide material. The phenolic series, containing most of the naturally occurring antioxidants, was the least successful formulation package for the dimer estolide. The blended/other materials, which were specifically designed for petroleum-based lubricants, did not have the best OT, since the estolides and other bio-based materials interact differently than their petroleum counterparts. A number of potential antioxidants have been identified as useful additives for the estolides esters. The OT of the estolide and formulated materials correlated well with other bio-based materials such as biodiesel.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel composed of mono-alkyl fatty acid esters made from the transesterification of plant oils or animal fats with methanol or ethanol. After conversion, biodiesel may contain trace concentrations of unconverted monoacylglycerols (MAG). These MAG have low solubility in biodiesel and may form solid residues when stored at cold temperatures. The present study evaluates the measurement of kinematic viscosity (ν) and cold filter plugging point (CFPP)-time to filter (Δt) as parameters that predict the temperature where small concentrations of MAG may lead to formation of solids or other phase transitions that restrict the flow of soybean oil fatty acid methyl esters (SME) through filters and fuel lines. Mixtures of SME doped with MAG were prepared and ν and Δt were measured as the temperature decreased from 20 to below 0 °C. Results showed a correlation between ν and Δt that held for neat SME (SME without added MAG) and SME-MAG mixtures as the temperature decreased to the threshold temperature (T th). Sharp increases in ∆t disrupted the correlation as temperature decreased below T th. Furthermore, T th generally increased as added MAG concentration increased in the mixtures.

Vegetable oils containing thioether groups have been synthesized and used to effectively remove heavy metal ions from aqueous solution. The use of thioether-functionalized corn oil (TF-corn oil) an...

Iso-oleic acid is a mixture of C18-unsaturated branched-chain fatty acid isomers with a methyl group on various positions of the alkyl chain, which is the product of the skeletal isomerization reaction of oleic acid and is the intermediate used to make isostearic acid (C18-saturated branched-chain fatty acid isomers). Methyl iso-oleate, a mixture of C18-unsaturated branched-chain fatty acid methyl ester isomers, is obtained via acid catalyzed esterification of iso-oleic acid with methanol. The branched-chain materials are liquid at room temperature and their “oiliness” property makes them an attractive candidate for the lubricant industry. In this paper, we report characterization of these branched-chain materials using comprehensive two-dimensional GC with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOF-MS) and their physical and lubricity properties using tribology measurements.

Despite its many promising characteristics as an alternative diesel fuel, the oxidative stability of biodiesel during storage is a major concern to fuel producers. Extensive degradation can affect fuel quality with respect to viscosity, acid value, cetane number, and other properties. Fuel standards in the U.S. and Europe include the induction period (IP), which is designed to ensure that good quality is maintained during storage. However, IP is measured at 110 °C to accelerate the formation of radicals and induce the oxidation reaction. This work analyzes the kinetics of thermal oxidation of biodiesel from soybean oil (SME) by non-isothermal pressurized differential scanning calorimetry (P-DSC). SME samples from four different sources were evaluated by P-DSC in static mode (zero purge gas flow) under 2000 kPa pressure. Effects of adding antioxidants to SME were also examined. Heating scans were conducted at various ramp rates (β) to determine the onset temperature (OT) of degradation. The Ozawa–Flynn–Wal...

Biodiesel is a renewable alternative fuel made from plant oils and animal fats that may be burned in a compression–ignition (diesel) engine. It is composed of mono-alkyl fatty acid esters made from plant oils or animal fats mainly by transesterification with methanol or ethanol. This process leaves behind small concentrations of minor constituents including monoacylglycerols (MAG). Saturated MAG have low solubility in biodiesel and may form solid residues during storage in cold weather. Soybean oil-fatty acid methyl esters (SME) were mixed with up to 1.0 mass% MAG to evaluate the effects on cloud point (CP), freezing point (FP), cold filter plugging point (CFPP), and wax appearance point (WAP). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results showed that MAG with only 27.6 mass% total long chain (C16–C18) saturated fatty acid content had melting transitions between 54 and 59.0 °C. Furthermore, DSC analysis indicated that pure monoolein may be problematic with respect to melting transitions between 25.4 and 33.4 °C. Solubility data for SME–MAG mixtures indicated a broad transition temperature range from solid at low temperature to liquid at temperatures exceeding 60 °C. Increasing the added MAG content from 0.10 to 1.0 mass% increased both CP and FP. Cold filter plugging point demonstrated higher sensitivity than CP or FP at added MAG content below 0.10 mass%, though it was not affected by increasing MAG concentration above 0.50 mass%. Wax appearance point showed no effects until added MAG content exceeded 0.25 mass%. Kinematic viscosity measured at 5 °C similarly showed no effects until added MAG concentration exceeded 0.20 mass%. Specific gravity at 15.6 °C and refractive index at 25 °C were not greatly affected by added MAG except at concentrations greater than 0.10 mass%.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel and fuel extender easily derived from vegetable oil or animal fat. In 2006, the US Environmental Protection Agency mandated that maximum sulfur content of diesel fuels be reduced to 15 ppm to protect catalysts employed in exhaust after-treatment devices. Processing to produce this ultra-low sulfur petrodiesel (ULSD) alters fuel lubricity, density, cold flow, viscosity, and other properties. Consequently, there is a need to develop a better understanding of the basic fuel properties of biodiesel/ULSD blends. This work evaluates the effects of biodiesel volumetric blend ratio (VBD) on cloud point (CP), kinematic viscosity (ν), specific gravity (SG), and refractive index (RI) of blends with petrodiesel. Properties measured for various blends of methyl esters of soybean oil (SME) and used cooking oil (UCOME) in ULSD were compared with those for blends with low sulfur (≤500 ppm) petrodiesel fuel (LSD). With respect to increasing VBD, CP and SG increased and RI decreased with each parameter demonstrating a linear correlation. In contrast, ν showed a curvilinear relationship with respect to increasing VBD. Calibration curves were derived from regression analyses to determine VBD in biodiesel/ULSD blends from measurements of each individual property. While the models had generally high coefficients of regression (R2 > 0.986), SG models were most accurate for predicting VBD to within 1.3 vol%.

Saturated branched-chain fatty acids (sbc-FAs) are found as minor constituents in several natural fats and oils. Sbc-FAs are of interest since they have lower melting points than their linear counterparts and exhibit good oxidative stability; properties that make them ideally suited in a number of applications. We (and others) have previously synthesized sbc-FAs by clay- or zeolite-catalyzed isomerization of unsaturated linear-chain fatty acids (ulc-FAs) to unsaturated branched-chain fatty acids (ubc-FAs) that were subsequently hydrogenated to the desired sbc-FAs. These acid-catalyzed isomerization reactions, however, proceed in moderate conversion and selectivity. Recently, our group found that H-Ferrierite zeolite catalyst isomerized ulc-FAs to their branched-chain counterparts in high conversion (>95%) and selectivity (85%). This paper reports the use of this type of catalyst for the preparation of a series of sbc-FAs and their ester derivatives. Selected physical properties of these branched acids and esters such as cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP), cold filter plugging point (CFPP), viscosity index (VI), thermo-oxidation stability, iodine value, and lubricity are also reported.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel or extender made from renewable agricultural lipids that may be burned in a compression-ignition (diesel) engine. It is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of fatty acids derived from plant oils or animal fats. Biodiesel has many important technical advantages compared to petrodiesel including superior inherent lubricity, low toxicity, high (non-flammable) flash point and biodegradability, very low or negligible sulfur content and lower exhaust emissions of most regulated species. Biodiesel is generally produced by transesterification of the lipid with a short-chain monohydric alcohol. This process may leave behind very small (trace) concentrations of minor constituents such as saturated monoacylglycerols (MAGs) or free steryl glucosides (FStGs). These materials have high melting points and very low solubilities allowing them to form solid residues when stored during cold weather. Blending with petrodiesel exacerbates the problem. Settling solid residues were found to clog fuel filters in fuel dispensers and vehicles. In response to documented problems the biodiesel industry in the United States collaborated with the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) to develop a cold soak filterability performance test that will help identify fuels that may have a propensity to clog filters if exposed to long-term storage in cold weather.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel, made from transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol, that has many attractive fuel characteristics. However, biodiesel is more prone than petrodiesel to start-up and operability problems during cold weather. The present study investigates the effects on cold-flow properties of biodiesel resulting from the mixture of soybean oil fatty acid methyl esters (SMEs) with fatty acid esters derived from transesterification of soybean oil with medium- and branched-chain alkyl alcohols. Admixtures of SMEs with 0−100 vol % tallow fatty acid methyl esters and with n-propyl (SnPrE), isopropyl (SiPrE), n-butyl (SnBuE), isobutyl (SiBuE), and 2-butyl soyates (S2BuE) were analyzed for cloud and pour point (CP and PP). CP and apparent solidification point (SP = PP − 1) data were employed to construct temperature−composition phase diagrams for each admixture in SME. Soyates with branched-chain alkyl headgroup moieties were more effective in decreasing CP and PP (or S...

Biodiesel from most agricultural feedstocks has flow properties that are prone to startup and operability problems during cold weather. Biodiesel from soybean oil is generally a mixture of long-chain fatty acid alkyl esters composed of 0.15–0.20 mass fraction saturated esters (melting point [MP] ≫ 0 °C) mixed with unsaturated esters (MP < 0 °C). This work investigates the crystallization properties of two saturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) commonly found in biodiesel from soybean oil. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) heating and cooling scans of methyl palmitate (MeC16), methyl stearate (MeC18) and methyl oleate (MeC18:1) in pure form were analyzed. Crystallization behavior in ternary FAME mixtures was inferred by the application of thermodynamic models based on ideal solution and freezing-point depression theories. Activity coefficients for MeC16 and MeC18 in MeC18:1 solvent were determined by analyzing DSC cooling curves for binary FAME mixtures. Eutectic points were predicted by both models. Crystallization onset temperatures inferred from freezing point depression theory were more accurate than those for ideal solutions with respect to a direct DSC cooling curve analysis of corresponding ternary mixtures. This work shows that the crystallization onset temperature (cloud point) of biodiesel may be predicted by freezing-point depression theory if the activity coefficients of the component FAME are known.

Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel made from vegetable oil or animal fat that may be burned in a compres sion-ignition (diesel) engine. The chemical nature of biodiesel makes it more susceptible to oxidation or autoxidation during long-term storage than conventional petroleum-based diesel (petrodiesel). Oxidative degradation during storage can compromise fuel quality with respect to effects on kinematic viscosity, acid value (number), cetane number, total ester content, and formation of hydroperoxides, soluble polymers, and other secondary products. One promising method of increasing the resistance to oxidation of biodiesel is to add oxidation inhibitors (antioxidants). This review summarizes relevant research progress in the development of effective antioxidants for treating biodiesel. Performance of antioxidants evaluated for treating biodiesel derived from soybean oil, rapeseed (low-erucic) oil, used cooking oil, tallow (beef), and palm oil feedstocks is discussed. Published in 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Biodiesel, an alternative fuel derived from lipid feedstocks, such as vegetable oil or animal fat, is mainly composed of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid alkyl esters. Fuel suppliers, terminal operators, and users are becoming more concerned with monitoring and maintaining good biodiesel fuel quality with respect to oxidative degradation during storage. The oil stability index (OSI), a parameter that measures the relative oxidative stability of fatty materials, is typically measured isothermally at elevated temperatures to accelerate oxidation. The present work investigates the effects of block temperature (T) on the OSI of biodiesel from soybean oil fatty acid methyl esters (SME) and used cooking oil fatty acid methyl esters (UCOME). Results were compared to those for pure methyl oleate (MO). An increasing temperature accelerated the oxidation reaction causing a decrease in OSI. Response factors (RF) determined with MO as the reference methyl ester showed little variation with respect to the temperat...

FAME of lard, beef tallow, and chicken fat were prepared by base-catalyzed transesterification for use as biodiesel fuels. Selected fuel properties of the neat fat-derived methyl esters (B100) were determined and found to meet ASTM specifications. The cold-flow properties, lubricity, and oxidative stability of the B100 fat-derived fuels also were measured. In general, the cold-flow properties of the fat-based fuels were less desirable than those of soy-based biodiesel, but the lubricity and oxidative stability of the fat-based biodiesels were comparable to or better than soy-based biodiesel. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission tests also were conducted with the animal fat-derived esters and compared with soybean oil biodiesel as 20 vol% blends (B20) in petroleum diesel. The data indicated that the three animal fat-based B20 fuels had lower NOx emission levels (3.2–6.2%) than did the soy-based B20 fuel.

Biodiesel, an alternative diesel fuel derived from transesterification of vegetable oils or animal fats, is composed of saturated and unsaturated long-chain fatty acid alkyl esters. When exposed to air during storage, autoxidation of biodiesel can cause degradation of fuel quality by adversely affecting properties such as kinematic viscosity, acid value and peroxide value. One approach for increasing resistance of fatty derivatives against autoxidation is to treat them with oxidation inhibitors (antioxidants). This study examines the effectiveness of five such antioxidants, tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PrG) and α-Tocopherol in mixtures with soybean oil fatty acid methyl esters (SME). Antioxidant activity in terms of increasing oxidation onset temperature (OT) was determined by non-isothermal pressurized-differential scanning calorimetry (P-DSC). Analyses were conducted in static (zero gas flow) and dynamic (positive gas flow) mode under 2000 kPa (290 psig) pressure and 5 °C/min heating scan rate. Results showed that PrG, BHT and BHA were most effective and α-Tocopherol least effective in increasing OT. Increasing antioxidant loading (concentration) showed sharp increases in activity for loadings up to 1000 ppm followed by smaller increases in activity at higher loadings. Phase equilibrium studies were also conducted to test physical compatibility of antioxidants in SME-No. 2 diesel fuel (D2) blends. Overall, this study recommends BHA or TBHQ (loadings up to 3000 ppm) for safeguarding biodiesel from effects of autoxidation during storage. BHT is also suitable at relatively low loadings (210 ppm after blending). PrG showed some compatibility problems and may not be readily soluble in blends with larger SME ratios. Although α-Tocopherol showed very good compatibility in blends, it was significantly less effective than the synthetic antioxidants screened in this work.

Biodiesel, an alternative diesel fuel derived from transesterification of vegetable oils or animal fats, is composed of saturated and unsaturated long-chain FA alkyl esters. During long-term storage, oxidation caused by contact with air (autoxidation) presents a legitimate concern with respect to monitoring and maintaining fuel quality. Extensive oxidative degradation may compromise quality by adversely affecting kinematic viscosity, acid value, or PV. This work examines the oil stability index (OSI) as a parameter for monitoring the oxidative stability of soybean oil FAME (SME). SME samples from five separate sources and with varying storage and handling histories were analyzed for OSI at 60°C using an oxidative stability instrument. Results showed that OSI may be used to measure relative oxidative stability of SME samples as well as to differentiate between samples from different producers. Although addition of α-tocopherol or TBHQ increased OSI, responses to these antioxidants varied with respect to SME sample. Variations in response to added antioxidant were attributed to aging and other effects that may have caused oxidative degradation in samples prior to acquisition for this study. Results showed that OSI was more sensitive than iodine value in detecting the effects of oxidative degradation in its early stages when monitoring SME during storage.

Carbonates are a class of compounds that have recently found increasing interest in commercial applications owing to their physical properties and relatively straightforward synthesis. In this work, physical and fuel properties of five straight-chain C17–39 and three branched C17–33 oleochemical carbonates were investigated. These properties included cetane number (CN), low-temperature properties, (kinematic) viscosity, lubricity, and surface tension. The carbonates studied had CN ranging from 47 to 107 depending on carbon chain length and branching. For the same number of carbons, the CN of carbonates were lower than those of FA alkyl esters owing to interruption of the CH2 chain by the carbonate moiety. Kinematic viscosities at 40°C ranged from 4.9 to 22.6 mm2/s whereas m.p. ranged from +3 to below −50°C depending on the carbonate structure. High-frequency reciprocating rig testing showed the neat carbonates to have acceptable lubricity that improved as chain length increased. Finally, the carbonate's ability to influence cold-flow properties in biodiesel (methyl soyate) and lubricity in low-lubricity ultra-low sulfur diesel were examined. The carbonates studied did not significantly affect cold flow or lubricity properties at concentrations up to 10,000 ppm (1 wt%). The properties of the carbonates resemble those of fatty alkyl esters with similar trends resulting from compound structure.

During storage and use, vegetable oil-derived industrial products such as biodiesel and biodegradable lubricants can be subjected to conditions that promote oxidation of their unsaturated components. The materials arising during oxidation and subsequent degradation can seriously impair the quality and performance of such products. Therefore, oxidative stability is a significant issue facing these vegetable oil-derived products, and enhanced understanding of the influence of various components of vegetable oils and storage parameters is necessary. In this work, the oil stability index (OSI) was used for assessing oxidation of monoalkyl esters of FA by varying several parameters. Neat fatty compounds and prepared mixtures thereof were studied for assessing the influence of compound structure and concentration. Small amounts of more highly unsaturated compounds had a disproportionately strong effect on oxidative stability. The recently developed concept of bis-allylic equivalents correlated more closely than the iodine value with the OSI times of mixtures of fatty esters. The OSI times of free acids were shorter than those of the corresponding alkyl esters. The presence of copper, iron, and nickel also reduced oxidative stability, but their effect was less than the presence of more highly unsaturated fatty compounds. Of these metals, copper had the strongest catalytic effect on OSI time. OSI may be an alternative to long-term storage tests for determining the influence of extraneous materials such as metals on oxidative stability.

Biodiesel derived from transesterification of soybean oil and methanol is an attractive alternative fuel for combustion in direct-injection compression ignition (diesel) engines. During long-term storage, oxidation due to contact with air (autoxidation) presents a legitimate concern with respect to maintaining fuel quality of biodiesel. This work examines the effects of oxidation under controlled accelerated conditions on fuel properties of methyl soyate (SME). SME samples from four separate sources with varying storage histories were oxidized at elevated temperature under a 0.5 standard cm3/min air purge and with continuous stirring. Results showed that reaction time significantly affects kinematic viscosity (ν). With respect to increasing reaction temperature, ν, acid value (AV), PV, and specific gravity (SG) increased significantly, whereas cold flow properties were minimally affected for temperatures up to 150°C. Antioxidants TBHQ and α-tocopherol showed beneficial effects on retarding oxidative degradation of SME under conditions of this study. Results indicated that ν and AV have the best potential as parameters for timely and easy monitoring of biodiesel fuel quality during storage.

Vegetable oils are an attractive renewable source for alternative diesel fuels. However, the relatively high kinematic viscosity of vegetable oils must be reduced to make them more compatible with conventional compression-ignition engines and fuel systems. Cosolvent blending is a low-cost and easy-to-adapt technology that reduces viscosity by diluting the vegetable oil with a low-M.W. alcohol (methanol or ethanol). The cosolvent (A), which consists of one or more amphiphilic compounds, is added to solubilize the otherwise nearly immiscible oil-polar alcohol mixture. This work investigates cold flow properties and phase equilibrium behavior associated with blends consisting of soybean oil (SBO) and methanol where A=8∶1 (mol) n-butanol/oleyl alcohol; 6∶1 (mol) 2-octanol/triethylammonium linoleate; and 4∶1 (mol) 2-octanol/Unadol 40 (alcohols from SBO FA); and a blend of 2∶1 (vol/vol) No. 2 diesel fuel/SBO and 95% ethanol where A=n-butanol. Cloud point (CP), pour point, cold filter plugging point (CFPP), and low-temperature flow test (LTFT) results were compared with corresponding phase separation temperature (T ϕ) data measured at equilibrium. Although CP data were measured under non-equilibrium experimental conditions, a nearly linear correlation was found between T ϕ and CP. Statistical analysis showed that T ϕ may also be correlated with CFPP and LTFT. Analysis of heating and cooling DSC curves indicated that peak temperatures may be employed to predict cold flow properties and T ϕ behavior for SBO/cosolvent blends. Cooling curve parameters correlated more readily than heating curve parameters. Finally, relatively low quantities of heat evolved during freezing indicated that crystallization in the SBO/cosolvent blends studied in this work occurs easily during cooling.

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews competing technologies for converting vegetable oils and animal fats into diesel fuel besides biodiesel. Aside from transesterification to produce biodiesel, microemulsion/co-solvent blending and hydroprocessing (deoxygenation) appear to be the two most promising approaches for converting vegetable oils and fats into alternative diesel fuels. Microemulsion or co-solvent blend hybrid fuels is a relatively low-cost conversion process since it requires little more than the mixing of individual components at ambient temperature. Transesterification generally requires a slightly elevated temperature; a minimum reaction time, depending on catalyst; and several product separation and washing steps to prepare the biodiesel for distribution. Similarly, hydroprocessing generally requires elevated temperature and hydrogen pressure; a minimum reaction time, depending on catalyst; condensation; and the fractionation of liquid products. Although hydroprocessing and transesterification may be economically competitive with each other, it is unlikely either approach will compare favorably with hybrid fuel formulation. Other advantages favoring hybrid fuel formulation over transesterification or hydroprocessing include adaptability to large-scale continuous flow processing equipment, no catalysts to recover or re-generate, no excess alcohol, no by- or co-products, and no product separation/fractionation steps. All compounds, including amphiphiles used in hybrid fuel formulations, may be derived from renewable agricultural feedstocks. Another disadvantage for hydroprocessing is the likelihood that it has an unfavorable energy balance. Life cycle analyses for biodiesel generally indicate that it gives back more than three times the energy required to produce it resulting in a net positive energy balance.

Vegetable oils (triacylglycerols) have many characteristics that make them attractive candidates as renewable alternative fuels for compression-ignition (diesel) engines. Unfortunately, vegetable oils are too viscous to be compatible with modern direct-injection diesel fuel systems and engines. Co-solvent blending is a simple and flexible technology that reduces viscosity by mixing the oil with low molecular weight alcohol. A co-solvent (A), consisting, of surfactant plus an amphiphilic compound, is added to solubilize otherwise nearly immiscible oil-alcohol mixtures into a single-layer (isotropic) solution. This work examines low-temperature phase behavior of two soybean oil (SBO)/methanol mixtures solubilized by A=unsaturated long-chain (C18) fatty alcohol/medium-chain alkanol (n-butanol and 2-octanol), one SBO/methanol mixture solubilized by A=triethylammonium linoleate/2-octanol, and one SBO/95 wt% ethanol (E95) mixture solubilized by n-butanol. The E95-blend was further blended in 1∶1 (vol/vol) mixtures with No. 2 diesel fuel. Two types of anisotropic phase behavior were observed; formation of a cloudy layer of solid crystals suspended in bulk solution (Type 1) and formation of two immiscible liquid layers (Type II). The type of phase separation in a given solution was influenced by phase separation temperature (Tϕ) relative to the crystallization characteristics of compounds in the SBO and fatty alcohol or amine constituents present in solution. Solutions with relatively low Tϕ values experienced crystallization of small solid particles favoring Type 1 separations. Conversely, solutions with Tϕ sufficient to avert crystallization of high melting point compounds favored Type II separations where Tϕ=critical solution temperature (Tcritical). Increasing the A/oil (SBO or No. 2 diesel/SBO mixture) mass ratio decreased Tϕ while increasing the mass fraction of alcohol (methanol or E95) increased Tϕ. This work shows that vegetable oil/A-based blends can be formulated with cold flow properties superior with respect to cloud point and comparable with respect to kinematic viscosity (v) of methyl soyate (biodiesel), either neat or blended with petroleum middle distillates.

Several novel fatty diesters with bulky moieties were synthesized by esterification of mono- or bifunctional fatty acids or with mono- or bifunctional alcohols using p-toluenesulfonic acid as catalyst. They were characterized by 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance as well as positive chemical ionization (PCl) mass spectrometry. The PCl mass spectra of the resulting diol diesters and diacid diesters are discussed and compared. The compounds were investigated as potential additives for improving the cold flow properties of vegetable oil esters used as biodiesel.

The relatively poor cold-flow properties of monoalkyl esters of vegetable oils and animal fats (biodiesel) present a major obstacle to their development as alternative fuels and extenders for combustion in direct injection compressionignition (diesel) engines. In this work, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) heating and cooling curves of methyl soyate (SME), methyl tallowate (TME), SME/TME admixtures, and winterized SME were analyzed. Completion of melt, crystallization onset (Onset), and other temperatures corresponding to melting and freezing peaks were correlated to predict cloud point (CP), pour point (PP), cold filter plugging point (CFPP), and low-temperature flow test (LTFT) data. Effects of treating methyl esters with cold-flow improvers were examined. Low-temperature flow properties of biodiesel may be accurately inferred from subambient DSC analyses of high-melting or freezing (β-form) peaks. The temperature of maximal heat flow for freezing peaks gave the best accuracy for predicting CP, PP, and CFPP, while freezing point gave the best accuracy for predicting LTFT. Onset also gave good correlations with respect to predicting PP, CFPP, and LTFT. Cooling scan parameters were more reliable than heating scan parameters.

Three monoalkyl fatty acid esters derived from tallow and grease were prepared by lipase-catalyzed transesterification and evaluated as prospective diesel engine fuels. The low-temperature properties of the esters, both neat and as 20% blends in No. 2 diesel fuel, were evaluated. Those properties included cloud point, pour point, cold filter plugging point, low-temperature flow test, and crystallization onset temperature. Other properties of the esters, such as kinematic viscosity, heating value, and calculated cetane number, also were determined. All three esters had acceptable physical and low-temperature properties, as well as acceptable fuel properties at the 20% level in diesel blends. Engine performance and emissions for the ester blends were determined in a direct-injection, matched two-cylinder diesel engine. Among the monoalkyl esters studied, ethyl greasate had better properties and engine performance characteristics than the two tallow esters. For the latter esters, isopropyl tallowate had better properties than ethyl tallowate.

The low-temperature properties of mono-alkyl esters derived from tallow and recycled greases were determined for neat esters and 20% ester blends in No. 2 low-sulfur diesel fuel. Properties studied included cloud point, pour point, cold filter plugging point, low-temperature flow test, crystallization onset temperature, and kinematic viscosity. Compositional properties of the alkyl esters determined included water, residual free fatty acids, and free glycerol content. In general, the secondary alkyl esters of tallow showed significantly improved cold-temperature properties over the normal tallow alkyl ester derivatives. The low-temperature flow test did not show a 1:1 correlation with cloud point as previously observed with methyl soyate and methyl tallowate. For the homologous series methyl to n-butyl tallowate, ethyl tallowate had the best broad-spectrum low-temperature properties, both neat and when blended in diesel fuel. For the greases studied, both the normal and branched alkyl ester derivatives showed improved properties over corresponding tallow esters, especially with neat esters.

This work explores near-term approaches for improving the low-temperature properties of triglyceride oil-derived fuels for direct-injection compression-ignition (diesel) engines. Methyl esters from transesterified soybean oil were evaluated as a neat fuel and in blends with petroleum middle distillates. Winterization showed that the cloud point (CP) of methyl soyate may be reduced to −16°C. Twelve cold-flow additives marketed for distillates were tested by standard petroleum methodologies, including CP, pour point (PP), kinematic viscosity, cold filter plugging point (CFPP), and low-temperature flow test (LTFT). Results showed that additive treatment significantly improves the PP of distillate/methyl ester blends; however, additives do not greatly affect CP or viscosity. Both CFPP and LTFT were nearly linear functions of CP, a result that compares well with earlier studies with untreated distillate/methyl ester blends. In particular, additives proved capable of reducing LTFT of neart methyl esters by 5–6°C. This work supports earlier research on the low-temperature properties; that is, approaches for improving the cold flow of methyl ester-based diesel fuels should continue to focus on reducing CP.

This work examines low-temperature properties of triglyceride-based alternate fuels for direct-injection compression-ignition engines. Methyl esters from transesterified soybean oil were studied as neat fuels and in blends with petroleum middle distillates (No. 1 or No. 2 diesel fuel). Admixed methyl esters composed of 5–30 vol% tallowate methyl esters in soyate methyl esters were also examined. Pour points, cloud points, and kinematic viscosities were measured; viscosities at cooler temperatures were studied to evaluate effects of sustained exposure. Low-temperature filterability studies were conducted in accordance with two standard methodologies. The North American standard was the low-temperature flow test (LTFT), and its European equivalent was the cold-filter plugging point (CFPP). With respect to cold-flow properties, blending methyl esters with middle distillates is limited to relatively low ester contents before the properties become preclusive. Under most conditions, cold-flow properties were not greatly affected by admixing the methyl esters with up to 30 vol% tallowate (before blending). Least squares analysis showed that both LTFT and CFPP of formulations containing at least 10 vol% methyl esters are linear functions of cloud point. In addition, statistical analysis of the LTFT data showed a strong 1:1 correlation between LTFT and CP. This result may prove crucial in efforts to improve low-temperature flow properties of alternate diesel fuels that contain methyl esters derived from triglycerides.

The suitability of the selenium dioxide/tert.-butyl-hydroperoxide system for obtaining allylic mono- and dihydroxy fatty compounds has recently been reported. The surface tension of some selected products was determined in 1N NaOH and compared to that of some known materials, such as ricinoleic acid. The surface properties of the novel monohydroxy fatty acids are comparable or better than those of the reference materials. The critical micelle concentrations of the novel monohydroxy acids are in the range 10−4–10−3 mol/L, depending on their structure. Furthermore, the monohydroxy acids were more effective when the hydroxy group was closer to the functional group at C1. Allylic dihydroxy acids also lowered the surface tension but less so than the monohydroxy compounds. Theerythro andthreo diastereomers of the allylic dihydroxy acids can be distinguished by surface tension, with thethreo diastereomers possessing better surfactant properties. Mixtures of the novel hydroxy fatty acids are also effective, thus obviating the need for complete purification of the products. Side products such as enones, which are formed during the allylic hydroxylations, also lower the surface tension. The products may be suitable for use in microemulsions or as additives in various commercial products.

This work examines the suitability of unsaturated C18 fatty alcohol/1-alkanol mixed amphiphile systems as solubility enhancers for methanol in triglyceride solutions. Four fatty alcohols (all-cis monoene, diene and triene, and all-trans diene) and five alkanols (C4−C12) were investigated. Effects of the degree of unsaturation and configuration of the double bonds in the fatty alcohol tailgroup and the chainlength of the alkanol tailgroup were examined. Ternary equilibrium diagrams showed that addition of fatty alcohol/alkanol amphiphiles dramatically affect miscibility between methanol and triglyceride. Solubility, kinematic and relative viscosity, and refractive index data were analyzed to determine mechanisms responsible for the apparent solubilization effects. Under most experimental conditions, formation of large micellar aggregates of amphiphiles was unlikely, and the results were consistent with those expected for co-solvency. However, some viscosity and refractive index data showed that formation of large methanol-in-amphiphile aggregates resembling a nonaqueous microemulsion was feasible, but under limited conditions.