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The development of antimicrobial resistance has become a severe global public health emergency. Foods of animal origin are considered possible drivers of resistant bacteria, including Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella spp. It is associated with the indiscriminate use of antibiotics, resulting in the inability to treat patients infected with antibiotic-resistant pathogens and a high risk of transmission of these resistant pathogens. The current study aimed to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of E. coli and Salmonella spp. in raw table eggs in Morocco. A total of 870 table eggs resulting from 290 samples (3 eggs = 1 sample), were purchased from ambulatory sellers, street vendors, kiosks, and neighborhood markets from different cities in Morocco and transferred to the laboratory in the Hassan II Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine Institute of Rabat, Morocco. The egg shells and contents were tested separately then the isolation and identification of bacterial pathogens were performed according to the Moroccan Standard Norms. The bacterial isolates were tested for susceptibility to six commonly used antibiotics, namely nalidixic acid (30 µg), kanamycin (30 µg), gentamycin (15 µg), ciprofloxacin (15 µg), tetracycline (30 µg), and amoxicillin (10 μg). The findings revealed that 38 samples (13%) tested positive for E. coli of which 9% were on egg shells, and 4% were in egg content, while for Salmonella enteritidis (S. enteritidis), 5 samples (2%) tested positive and only in the egg contents. Escherichia coli showed the highest resistance to amoxicillin, followed by tetracycline and nalidixic acid with 92.10%, 84.21%, and 50%, respectively, and was sensitive to ciprofloxacin (84.21%), kanamycin (65.79%), and gentamicin (60.54%). Salmonella enteritidis had the highest resistance against tetracycline (80%), followed by ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid with 40% each. The highest sensitivity rates of S. enteritidis were for gentamicin, amoxicillin, and kanamycin at 80%, 80%, and 40%, respectively. Given that these resistant bacteria could potentially be transferred to humans through eggs or egg products, it is necessary to employ strict hygiene measures and provide a wise and legal use of antibiotics in animal breeding.

Handling and consuming contaminated meat can lead to food poisoning and the acquisition of antibiotic resistance genes. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Salmonella spp. are the most isolated bacteria from broiler chicken meat, leading to serious foodborne diseases. The present study aimed to evaluate the presence and antibiogram profiles of Salmonella spp. and S. aureus strains in poultry meat purchased from modern and traditional poultry slaughterhouses in Morocco. Foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella spp. and S. aureus, were isolated from poultry meat using standard methods and then confirmed by biochemical tests (coagulase, catalase, oxidase, motility and API 20E for further biochemical identification) and an immunological test (serotyping test). The antibiogram of the isolates was determined using the agar diffusion method and interpreted according to the criteria of performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, Pennsylvania, USA. A total of 540 poultry meat samples were collected and treated (360 poultry meat samples from traditional slaughterhouses and 180 poultry meat samples from modern slaughterhouses), out of which 15.92% were S. aureus positive and 7.40% were Salmonella spp. positive. In traditional poultry slaughterhouses, the prevalence rates of Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were 11.11% and 20.55%, respectively. In contrast, Salmonella spp. was not detected in poultry samples of modern poultry slaughterhouses, and the prevalence of S. aureus was 6.66%. All S. aureus and 97% of Salmonella spp. isolates were found resistant to at least one antibiotic, while 86% of S. aureus and 30% of Salmonella spp. showed resistance to more than three antibiotics. The obtained results of the present study confirmed that broiler chicken meat purchased from traditional poultry slaughterhouses was mainly contaminated by Salmonella spp. and S. aureus, indicating a major public health risk in Morocco. Therefore, considerable efforts should be made to apply appropriate hygiene practices.

In 2006, the European Union, Switzerland and other countries around the world banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promoters (AGPs) in poultry feed. This is due to the fact that excessive use of AGPs would generate antibiotic resistance at dangerously high levels. compromising the capacity to treat common infectious diseases in humans such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, sepsis, ... This fact implies the urgency of banning the use of AGPs in poultry farms and the obligation to substitute them with alternatives that can match their effects in terms of growth performance but also can improve intestinal health such as Zinc. In fact, Zinc in organic or inorganic form has multiple effects, like improving growth parameters in broilers and production in layers and breeders, stimulating the immune system and maintaining the balance of the intestinal microbiota. Zinc is thus a broad-spectrum substitute for AGPs in poultry and its potential should be further explored.

In the quest to improve public and animal health, white meat is considered to be one of the major causes of antibioresistance identified in medicine, through uncontrolled use of antibiotics in poultry farming as growth promoters (GPA). Thus, this use needs to be reconsidered at large scale. This reconsideration involves the substitution of GPAs by natural alternatives, particularly enzymes degrading non-starch polysaccharides (NSPases) which will allow:1) modulation of the intestinal microbiota, to attenuate the anti-nutritional effects of insoluble NSPs, 2)reduction of the non-digested portion of the substrate and 3) improvement of the zootechnical performance of the chicken. Non-starch polysaccharides contain two main families, namely: water-insoluble NSPs including cellulose and partially water-soluble NSPs. However, despite the fact that these components constitute the major part of cereal dietary fiber, they have an anti-nutritional effect associated with the viscous nature of these polysaccharides and their interaction with the intestinal microflora due to the fact that poultry does not produce enough endogenous enzymes to hydrolyze NSPs. The use of NSPases produced mainly by fungi and bacteria allows counterbalancing the anti-nutritional properties of dietary fibers by increasing the digestibility of starch and improving the zootechnical performance of broilers, particularly the conversion index.Thus, this literature review aims to shed light on the effects of NSPases on the zootechnical parameters of chickens, the intestinal microflora as well as on nutritional digestibility in order to use them as alternatives to GPAs and limit the aggravation of the phenomenon of antibioresistance. This approach is therefore, part of the world famous concept of one world one health and which applies to the design and implementation of programs, policies, legislations and research for which several sectors communicate and collaborate to improve public health outcomes. &nbsp

Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) is a highly contagious pathogen for broilers. Its epidemiological aspects remain poorly understood in Morocco. Given that, we carried out a pilot seroepidemiological survey from December 2020 to June 2021 to define aMPV seroprevalence in Moroccan broiler flocks in different bioclimatic zones (humid to sub-humid, semi-arid, arid) during winter and spring. According to these zones, 48 flocks not vaccinated against aMPV were selected using a stratified random sampling model. With a simple random sampling strategy, fifteen to thirty sera per flock were collected then analysed using a commercial indirect ELISA kit (CIVTEST AVI TRT?, HIPRA S.A., Amer, Spain) that was able to titre antibodies against aMPV subtypes A and B. Furthermore, questionnaires were shared with veterinarians in charge of flocks to collect data and analyse it with multivariable logistic regression models to identify risk factors associated with virus circulation. From 1142 sera, 912 tested positive with the ELISA used, showing an overall aMPV seroprevalence of 79.86% in the broilers. The arid zone had the highest seroprevalences: 94.16% during winter and 84.82% during spring. Bioclimate and season seemed to contribute to aMPV seropositivity. Likewise, high stocking densities and poor hygiene scores on farms were proven to predispose birds to seropositivity. Hereby, we show the circulation of aMPV in Moroccan broiler farms is influenced by bioclimate, season, density, and hygiene conditions. The present study is the first serological evidence of aMPV in broilers in the Maghreb region.