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Seminal doses need to be preserved in a diluent with antibiotics to avoid bacterial contamination, which can cause infections in the female, affect fertilization and sperm quality parameters, although the need for these doses is not only for artificial insemination, but also for veterinary and human medicine. The increase in antibiotic resistance is a problem that has led to increased research into new antimicrobial compounds that can deal with multiresistant bacteria. In a previous study, the bactericidal activity of metalacarborane I2-COSAN in vitro has been demonstrated. In order to study the applicability of this compound as a preservative for boar semen, the effect of I2-COSAN on the sperm quality of uninfected samples and samples infected with Staphylococcus aureus MRSA and Escherichia coli BLEE, as well as its antimicrobial activity in these samples, was studied in this work. For the study of the impact on boar semen, the effect on motility, viability and morphology was studied through CASA (Computer-assisted sperm analysis). The study of the antimicrobial activity has been carried out by quantifying viable cells at different times (0h, 24h and 48h). The compound does not affect the viability of spermatozoa, but it does affect their motility. A fine-tuning of the protocol has also been done, finding that centrifugation greatly affects sperm motility, which will be applicable in future studies performed with other similar compounds. In the assays carried out to test the antimicrobial effect of I2-COSAN on S. aureus, a similar percentage reduction of bacterial viability was observed in all treatments. As far as E. coli is concerned, no results were obtained, because the bacterium die after 24h in the seminal samples. This indicates that there is something in the boar seminal samples that affects the tested bacteria, being E. coli more sensible than S. aureus. The fact that the compound severely affects sperm motility limits its applicability in the preservation of these samples, so it would be necessary to study other similar compounds, in order to completely refute the applicability of metalacarboranes in the preservation of seminal samples

Cancer is a concept that describes a wide number of diseases which present the same trait: a fast, uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal cells. The gynaecological cancer is localised in the organs of the female reproductive system, such as the ovary, the uterus, the cervix, the vagina, and the vulva. According to the Global Cancer Observatory (GCO), cancer is the second cause of mortality in the World, as approximately 1 out of 6 deceases is caused by this disease; cervical dysplasia is mostly detected in women between 20 and 30 years old, although deceases of youngers than 30 are considered isolated cases (The National Cancer Institute [NCI], 2021). On global scale, out of the fives possible regions where gynaecological cancer can appear, the cervix is the one having the most incidence, followed by the uterus and the ovary; in particular, in 2020, 3.1% new cases of cervical cancer were registered (The Global Cancer Observatory [GLOBOCAN], 2020). Diverse risk factors, such as lifestyle and external infections - like the one produced by the Human Papilloma virus (HPV) (GLOBOCAN, 2022) -, may produce gynaecological tumours; this disease could also be a consequence of genetic factors, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The aim of this Dissertation is to review systematically the factors that may underlie cervical cancer, either these are genetic or external factors. In addition, how this cancer develops is approached together with the methods of diagnosis and treatment. For this purpose, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined in a PICOS (Population, Intervention, Comparator, Outcome, Study) table and a literature search was conducted through MEDLINE-PubMed until January 2022; based on this selection, a total of 68 articles was included. Results indicated that the source that originates cervical cancer is mostly the genetic variation along with environmental factors. In conclusion, the genetic component in individuals was found to be relevant for the diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of cervical cancer. In spite of all the aforementioned, further research and an update on treatment and diagnosis are needed to reduce the occurrence and mortality of this disease

The photographic presence of women on war in journalism and the gender inequality suffered by women are often ignored in previous investigations. This study focuses on analyzing the photographic images of women published in the monthly illustrated magazine ‘Liang You’ during the Second Sino-Japanese War, with the aim of knowing the presence of Chinese womenand verifying the existence of inequality of gender suffered during the war. To this end, the photographs published from 1937 to 1945 have been qualitatively studied following the theories of Vilches (1983) and Facio (2009). The quantity and regularity of the publication are analyzed in this study.The areas in which women enter, women’sidentities and activities shown in photographs are investigated. We find that the presence of women on war is active in journalism. Chinese women appear in family, social, educational and work environments. They have diverse identities as social activists, nationalists and protestors. However, they are despised, subordinate and marginalized because they suffer the limitations built by a sexist society with a low level of development. We argue that it is necessary to maintain a vision of gender equality in the study of war to reveal the silent history of women and understand their submission in a purely masculine world La presencia fotográfica de la mujer en periodismo y la desigualdad de género que padece la mujer suelen ser ignoradas en las investigaciones anteriores. El presente estudio se centra en analizar las imágenes fotográficas sobre la mujer publicadas en la revista ilustrada mensual ‘Liang You’ durante la Segunda Guerra Sino-japonesa, con el objetivo de conocer la presencia de la mujer china y constatar la existencia de la desigualdad de género que padece durante la guerra. Para ello, se han estudiado de manera cualitativa las fotografías publicadas desde 1937 hasta 1945 siguiendo las teorías de Vilches (1983) y Facio (2009). Se analiza la cantidad y la regularidad de la publicación en este estudio; se averiguan los ámbitos en que se meten las mujeres, las identidades y actividades suyas mostradas en fotografías. Encontramos que la presencia de la mujer es activa en periodismo. Las mujeres chinas aparecen en ámbito familiar, social, educativo y laboral. Tienen identidades diversas como activistas sociales, nacionalistas y reivindicativas. No obstante, son despreciadas, subordinadas y marginadas porque sufren las limitaciones construidas por una sociedad machista con nivel bajo del desarrollo. Discutimos que es preciso mantener una visión de igualdad de género en el estudio de la guerra para revelar la historia silenciosa de la mujer y entender la sumisión suya en un mundo meramente masculina

Wealth has been found to be associated with financial wellbeing in ways not captured by income as well as increased social connections, improved physical and mental health, and increased emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development among children. Preliminary research indicates that a gender disparity in net worth exists in the U.S. However, research in the U.S. thus far has been limited to unmarried households. Research conducted in Germany finds that the gender wealth gap is substantially larger among married households as compared to unmarried households. Using the 2008 panel of the Survey of Income and Program Participation, this dissertation is the first to examine whether the same is true in the U.S. This dissertation is comprised of three papers: Paper 1 descriptively examines the individual wealth holdings of men and women among married, widowed, divorced, and never married individuals. Results further consider the intersectionality of gender and race in relation to asset ownership and liabilities. Paper 2 provides the first examination of the determinants of the gender wealth gap in the U.S. among the married as well as the unmarried. Blinder-Oaxaca decompositions are conducted in order to examine how much of the gender wealth gap can be explained by labor market characteristics, education, demographic characteristics, and receipt of benefits. DiNardo, Fortin, and Lemieux decompositions are additionally conducted to determine if determinates differ across the wealth distribution. Paper 3 is the first attempt to merge the gender earnings and net worth disparities literature. Weisbrod & Hansen (1968)’s augmented earnings measure is utilized to combine net worth and earnings into one annual measure. Annual earnings, net worth, and augmented earnings are descriptively compared. Paper 1 multivariate results indicate that divorced and never married women own less than $0.30 of wealth for each dollar owned by comparable men while married women own $0.92 for each dollar owned by married men. Black women experience a substantially larger gender wealth gap. Paper 2 finds that the gender wealth gap among divorced and unmarried individuals is not explained by the characteristics listed above and is instead primarily attributable to differences in the rewards or penalties men and women receive for characteristics. Among married individuals, the gender gap can be explained largely by differences in characteristics, particularly labor market characteristics. Paper 3 finds that the gender gap in augmented earnings very slightly increases the disparity as compared to earnings alone. Results indicate that the gender wealth gap among married individuals in the United States is substantially smaller than among unmarried individuals. Paper 2 indicates that for the most part, married couples share assets and debts. The remaining differences in wealth may then be a direct result of the division of labor as determined by the labor market characteristics. Racial differences in the gender wealth gap are stark and particularly concerning. Lastly, Paper 3 indicates that although the augmented earnings measure increased gender disparities only slightly, it suggests that the gender wealth gap captures additional aspects of disparities not captured by earnings. Future research is needed to determine the impact this disparity has on wellbeing.

Inherited from the traditional Confucians value, men have played a dominant role in China, and women have suffered gender discrimination in multiple surfaces including health, education, expectation of social roles, and job markets. In this paper, I focus on women’s employment rights and gender discrimination at workplace in China. Despite joining international conventions and having general domestic laws against discrimination, women in China are treated unequally and less favored in the entire occupational lifecycle, including job selection, recruitment, allocation, training, promotion and benefits, firing, retirement, and pension. By examining policies and practices against white-collar women in regard to recruitment process, employment benefits, and sexual harassment, areas where the most common types of discrimination occur, I intend to identify three factors contributed to the inefficiency of the Chinese legal system in protecting female employees against gender discrimination: 1) Gendered stereotypes and social norms, 2) Inadequate legal and political regulation, and 3) Sketchy employer practices.

Orientador: Tirza Aidar Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas Resumo: A pesquisa de tese se propôs a investigar a mortalidade feminina por feminicídios no Brasil, com dados do setor de saúde de 1996 a 2014. Como feminicídios são entendidos os óbitos femininos que tenha relação com a opressão de gênero, para os objetivos da tese foram compreendidos os feminicídios em três categorias: os feminicídio reprodutivo, ligados às mortes por aborto, feminicídio doméstico, ligados às violências letais no espaço da residência ou relações familiares e/ou conjugais, e feminicídio sexual, ligados às violências letais com evidencia de violência sexual. Esta proposta visa a articulação entre teoria feminista e análise empírica da mortalidade feminina em base a fontes de informação secundárias. Esse entendimento é fruto de trabalho de estudo da arte do conceito de Feminicídio, estudo do diferencial de sexo na mortalidade geral, e abordagem histórico-social para as opressões de gênero e suas tipologias de violência. O estudo empírico tomou como base de dados os registros da saúde, especificamente informações de bases da saúde, as Autorizações de Internação Hospitalares (AIH/SIH/SUS); Declarações de óbito (DO/SIM/SUS); e as Fichas de Notificação compulsória da violência sexual e doméstica contra mulheres (SINAN/SVS/SUS). Como metodologia opta-se por produção de dados sobre mortalidade proporcional, taxas de mortalidade específicas norteadas por três grupos etários: 0 a 14 anos, 15 a 49 anos, 50 anos e mais. Para estes grupos foi conduzido estudo do diferencial de sexo, estudo geográfico da dispersão das mortes no território brasileiro, e análise estatística em busca de preditores dos feminicídios com base em dados brutos do SINAN Abstract: The thesis research aimed to investigate female mortality from femicides in Brazil, with data from the health sector from 1996 to 2014. Femicides are understood as female deaths related to gender oppression, for the purposes of the thesis feminicides were defined in three categories: reproductive femicide, linked to deaths from abortion, domestic femicide, linked to lethal violence in the residence or family and / or conjugal relations, and sexual femicide, linked to lethal violence with evidence of sexual violence . This proposal aims articulation between feminist theory and empirical analysis of female mortality based on secondary sources of information. This understanding was fruit of a study of the art of the concept of Feminicide, study of the gender differential in general mortality, and historical-social approach to gender oppression and its typologies of violence. The empirical study was based on health records, specifically information on health databases, Hospitalization Authorizations (AIH / SIH / SUS); Death certificates (DO / SIM / SUS); and the compulsory notification of sexual and domestic violence against women (SINAN / SVS / SUS). As a methodology, was chose to produce proportional mortality data, specific mortality rates based on three age groups: 0 to 14 years, 15 to 49 years, 50 years and over. For these groups was studied of the sex differentials, geographic study of the dispersion of deaths in the Brazilian territory by municipals, and statistical analysis in search of predictors of femicides based on SINAN data Doutorado Demografia Doutora em Demografia CAPES

Though many forms of discrimination of Native Americans have ended, there is still a presence of oppression and discrimination when considering the lives of the indigenous women. This manifests itself in recent history in the denial of cultured lifestyles, the struggle for basic civil rights, and presently the restrictions to voting, employment, and medical attention.

This issue brief examines the gender discrimination that women face in today’s educational system. While there are many organizations and committees that are dedicated to improving the issue of gender inequality in education, like the Global Campaign for Education and the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the issue of gender discrimination is not completely resolved.

Both legal and undocumented immigrant woman are facing are facing swaths social injustice in the immigration system to the United States. These injustices begin in a very drastic manner on their respective journey to the United States, and persist throughout their stay. These Social injustices put a strain on the woman's life that makes it hard to succeed in the United States.

El propósito del presente trabajo es realizar una investigación en profundidad sobre cómo incorporan la igualdad de género, los principales instrumentos internacionales de la Responsabilidad Social Corporativa. Hasta el momento, no existen muchas investigaciones que analicen la Responsabilidad Social Corporativa desde una perspectiva de género, por lo que la autora, considera que puede ser un punto de partida para investigaciones posteriores

As legal education undergoes significant changes with regard to both student enrollment and faculty hiring, the fight to keep law faculty tenure is at the forefront. But the focus on tenure should be about the standards themselves. A better approach would be to change tenure requirements to create a more just and inclusive set of standards and criteria for evaluation. This Article draws from the first systematic, comprehensive, mixed-method empirical law faculty diversity study to investigate how challenges in the classroom and bias in teaching evaluations affect female law faculty of color. The in-depth interviews of female law faculty of color are systematically analyzed using Atlas.ti software, finding that students directly challenge particular faculty in class, sometimes through verbal and even physical abuse, and write insensitive and irrelevant race- and gender-based comments on anonymous teaching evaluations. These encounters often have negative effects on the professional trajectory of women of color law professors, most notably when these individuals seek promotion and tenure. Instead of supporting these discriminatory barriers to advancement, legal institutions should do away with student evaluations altogether, modify them, or supplement them with more rigorous and less discriminatory forms of evaluation. This is the way to fight bias in teaching evaluations., Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, Vol. 31 No. 1 (2016): 2015 Symposium: Persisting Discrimination in the Legal Academy

In May 2014, a conversation about gender discrimination among law school faculties exploded on the email listserv for the American Association of Law Schools (“AALS”) Section of Women in Legal Education. This conversation drew in dozens of participants from schools all over the United States and included teachers who were just starting out and those nearing retirement, drawing in clinical faculty, legal writing faculty, library faculty, and podium faculty. The topics that were raised ranged from the discriminatory actions of colleagues and students, to the marginalization of particular subject areas in the curriculum, to structural hierarchies in the profession, to the role of class in exacerbating other inequalities. The conversation went on for several weeks, and many of the participants urged that we needed to harness the feelings of anger and frustration expressed by so many and work together to channel that energy into productive change. As one step, a group of faculty members from all over the country, inspired by a suggestion from Professor Meera Deo of Thomas Jefferson School of Law, banded together to propose a “crosscutting program” at the 2015 meeting of the AALS that would draw from empirical data, legal research, litigation strategy, and personal experience to both further conversations about the persistence of discrimination in the legal academy and activate strategies for addressing continuing problems. The program had a unique structure to permit the inclusion of as many voices as possible in the conversation. The program began with a three-person panel similar to more traditional AALS presentations. The second part of the program was made up of three-minute statements by speakers who were selected in response to a “call for remarks” circulated by the program organizers. The Articles in this symposium issue represent some of the ideas that emerged from this crosscutting program. The Articles are presented here in the order that the speakers offered their remarks at the AALS program., Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, Vol. 31 No. 1 (2016): 2015 Symposium: Persisting Discrimination in the Legal Academy

This issue brief focuses on the intersection of women’s issues and bi/multi racial identities. Women and bi and multi racial individuals have been subject to a history of oppression and discrimination in US society, today persistent bias and discrimination are still present for both group in the work place and labor market.

Gender discrimination in South Asia is a well-documented fact. However, gender is only one of an individual’s many identities. This paper investigates how gender discrimination depends on the social identities of interacting parties. We use an experimental approach to identify gender discrimination by randomly matching 2,836 male and female students pursuing bachelor’s-equivalent degrees in three different types of institutions — Madrassas (religious seminaries), Islamic universities, and liberal universities — that represent distinct identities within the Pakistani society. Our main finding is that gender discrimination is not uniform in intensity and nature across the educated Pakistani society and varies as a function of the social identity of both individuals who interact. While we find no evidence of higher-socioeconomic-status men discriminating against women, men of lower socioeconomic status and higher religiosity tend to discriminate against women — but only women of lower socioeconomic status who are closest to them in social distance. Moreover, this discrimination is largely taste-based. Our findings suggest that social policies aimed at empowering women need to account for the intersectionality of gender with social identity.

D.Phil. The aim of this study is to critically analyse representations of gender and sex in newspaper reports on HIV and AIDS in the hope of improving messaging around HIV and AIDS. Within the scope of this study observations are made at the conclusion of each case study so as to inform prevention campaigns and media on more appropriate ways of representing gender and sex and HIV and AIDS. These observations serve as guidelines to inform journalists and civil society on how better to message HIV and AIDS and sexuality. Mutual recognition is used as the theoretical standpoint for understanding sexuality by emphasizing the premise of respect for self and other. Mutual recognition is used as the critical lens to rethink gender beyond constructions of masculinity and femininity, race, class and sexuality; looking for the moments and opportunities for recognition between both masculine and feminine subjects as well as for narratives on sameness and difference beyond race, class and sexuality. Mutual recognition is also the way forward for resisting phallogocentrism and shifting representation away from the workings of male hegemony. The theoretical framework used in this study is based on feminist psychoanalysis and feminist media interpretation. Special mention is given to the work of Jessica Benjamin, Donna Haraway and Jane Flax; on account of their reception of Freudian theory of the oedipal complex showing ways of rethinking the oedipal complex and gender differentiation. Foucault’s work on representation shows how we can rethink language to better serve the notion of mutual recognition, placing importance on concepts such as respect, responsibility and caring for self and other in ways that go beyond race/ethnicity, class, sex/gender or sexuality. Eros and thanatos (life and death drives) is nuanced to highlight how jouissance or the ‘little death’ (orgasm) is a way of resolving the tension between these opposing drives by shifting discourse away from sex and taboo or death towards sex and pleasure and thus emphasizing eros and mutual recognition. The study is concluded with a set of guidelines for representing gender and sex in relation to HIV and AIDS. It is significant to note that this is a qualitative study that, which makes use of textual analysis and seeks to offer a measure of transparency and accountability to the interpretation of selected texts.

M.B.A. Everywhere in the world, an increasing number of female entrepreneurs are becoming the pillars of economic growth and development. This exploratory research sought to investigate the barriers facing female entrepreneurs and to establish whether these barriers are exacerbated for women because of their gender. It focuses on the experiences and perceptions of female entrepreneurs in the urban formal sector of the Gauteng area of South Africa. Data for the study was gathered by a survey through questionnaires administered to 93 female entrepreneurs, the majority of whom were registered with either the South African Business Women's Association or The South African Women's Network. The literature review identified differences in female and male entrepreneurship related to personal demographics, business demographics and support structures. These differences could be explained by the barriers that female entrepreneurs face in their endeavours. The barriers are discussed under five main categories: social and cultural barriers, infrastructural barriers, educational and occupational barriers, role barriers, and behavioural barriers. Upon investigating these barriers amongst female entrepreneurs, results revealed that female entrepreneurs have to contend with socio-cultural, political, structural, economics, legal and personal barriers compared to men when they contemplate entrepreneurship. Although some barriers may be the same as those experienced by male entrepreneurs, the female entrepreneurs in this study perceived that they did indeed experience barriers that were specific to female entrepreneurs and that some barriers were exacerbated for them because of their gender. Thus, even if the Constitution of South Africa states that women and men have equal rights and the same entitlements for engaging in a career in society, reality proves that the experiences of female entrepreneurs in Gauteng are contrary to this - the current situation indicates that female entrepreneurship in Gauteng serves as a 'glass ceiling' for female entrepreneurial ambitions. Understanding the barriers facing female entrepreneurs can be beneficial to: females currently engaged in entrepreneurship, aspiring and emerging female entrepreneurs, and policy makers. This understanding can lead to more supportive policies and programmes for female entrepreneurs. Society, government, policy makers and women themselves thus need to work together to bring about changes required towards female entrepreneurs.

D.Phil. The world of work of women has elicited much research locally and abroad. Underpinning the research is the societal norm that men are breadwinners and women are homemakers, which poses a dilemma in terms of gender roles in the professional and domestic life of women. Hence the aim of the research was to develop a substantive theory to explore and foreground how women in senior management positions in a knowledge organisation in the telecommunication domain experience their professional and domestic realities against the background of the materialisation of this societal norm. The study was done in the qualitative paradigm, guided by a modernist interpretive theoretical framework. Casing was employed as research design. Six women at senior management level were selected by means of purposive sampling (with the assistance of a gatekeeper). One-on-one semi-structured interviews and field notes were used as data collection methods. Grounded theory (as proposed by Strauss and Corbin) was used to analyse the data. Open coding was done with the aid of the ATLAS.ti computer software programme, whereas axial coding and selective coding were done manually.

Aquest treball pretén analitzar la discapcitat des d’una nova visió, des de la prespectiva de gènere. Intenta explicar la situació actual i les necessitats reals que tenen les dones amb discapacitat. A través d’una base teòrica on es fa un anàlisi de la discriminació a la dona i a la discapacitat, s’introdueix el concepte de dona i discapacitat i seguidament, es treballa la interecció de la dona amb discapacitat en àmbits com la maternitat, el sexe, etc. Finalment, es presenta un projecte d’intervenció disenyat i dut a terme, amb l’intenció de trancar estereotips relacionats amb la dona amb discapacitat

El tratamiento diferencial y discriminatorio que existe en cuanto al devenir evolutivo de la mujer con respecto al del hombre es el tema principal de esta investigación. El tractament diferencial i discriminatori que existeix pel que fa a l'esdevenir evolutiu de la dona respecte al de l'home és el tema principal d'aquesta investigació.

M.A. This dissertation examines the use of language and its implications on gender relations within the Swazi courts. Starting from the premise that language use is an important guide in understanding gender differences and differences in power between men and women, this dissertation investigates the language used by the different participants in court proceedings of selected court cases, particularly on offences that involve or otherwise touch on assault. The data is based on proceedings in two selected courts, one in Mbabane (an urban court) and the other in Lobamba (a semi urban court). Analysis is strengthened by an array of theories of gender and cultural studies. The major analytical methodology for this study is Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The study ultimately locates itself within the line of gender studies on cultural influences, examining how lexical choices in linguistic discourses contribute to sustaining or subverting age-old ideas of manhood versus womanhood in Swaziland. The analysis leads to a conclusion that: (a) Women are viewed as docile and unchanging in terms of their interaction in the society. (b) Within the patriarchal Swazi context, the linguistic expectations of “good women” put them at a disadvantage when communicating with men. (c) Traditionalists have to shift from patriarchal values and integration of the Swazi custom with some of the positive ways in life borrowed from education, Christianity and other modernized institutions. If this is enforced then women would cease to be treated as doormats and marginalised by society. This gender imbalance is revealed in situations of contest. It not only draws on, but also engenders the already existing ideologies of strong and knowledgeable men versus weak and ignorant women, in part by muting the latter. This, in the researcher’s view, is worsened by the fact that such linguistic disempowerment takes place within the structures of the State such as the courts, whose authority can easily be mistaken for that of the men who function within them. Put differently, the connotations of power, authority, coercion and fear within the courts are reinforced when one half of participants are disadvantaged by cultural ideologies such as those of linguistic control.

This thesis contends that the government of the Russian Federation will benefit more from policies that end job discrimination against women than policies aimed at trying to get women to embrace their traditional gender role as wife and mother in hopes that it will improve fertility rates. While Russia is enduring concurrent demographic and economic crises, there are trade-offs between empowering women with equal job opportunity and high fertility rates, usually referred to as the Demographic-economic Paradox. While fertility rates are an important aspect of population growth, evidence indicates that the high mortality rate is more detrimental to Russia's population growth rates. Thus, government policies to curb needless deaths will be more beneficial for the Russian population overall than attempts to revitalize traditional gender roles to increase fertility rates, especially in a depressed economic environment. Moreover, as the sex ratio of women to men increases, changes in the social and economic structure are inevitable. http://archive.org/details/macroeconomiccon109455311 US Marine Corps (USMC) author Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

M.A. Despite constitutional and legislative measures to promote gender equality, gender inequality pervades the South African political, social and economic sectors. It is imperative that government uses gender sensitive policy instruments to reverse these imbalances. Gender expenditure analyses on national budget votes reveal a perpetuation of gender inequality. This municipal study assesses Johannesburg’s water budget process using an analytical framework of three criteria: representation; participation and benefit accrued to women. It determines that administrative representation of women in Johannesburg Water is nominal, the drafting of the budget remains patriarchal and representation of gender concerns for water provision in the consultation phase is not evident. The participation of women in the consultation and approval phases cannot be quantified. Women benefit minimally as employees and as entrepreneurs. This study determines that there is a potentially significant gendered impact of Johannesburg’s water budget, which motivates for this policy instrument to be gender sensitive. Mr. H. Robertson Prof. Y. Sadie

In 2004, South Africa celebrated 10 years of freedom, and in August women have celebrated 48 years of women’s activism. South African women have come a long way and yet the battle for women empowerment still rages on. Women have not yet fully achieved equal status. In fact, the struggle for women leadership has intensified in a sense that nowadays-influential positions are also associated with sensitive perks and career patching, which means women are more than ever seen as a threat in relation to the occupation of these positions. Women are faced with challenges when they have to apply for or be placed in management in schools. This study seeks to explain why the number of female principals at Ekurhuleni East High Schools is less than of male collegues. Considering the fact that the ratio between female educators and male educators favours women, it is questionable why management of schools is assigned to males. This brings us to the challenges women have to deal with when they are supposed to be selected for management positions. Ozga (1993:4) supports the above statement and argue that women form the majority of the work force in education: yet they are underrepresented in its management. Women under-representation is and can be attributed to the treatment women receive because of their gender. Thus, the major barrier to selection and recruitment of women is gender. Women are seen as less than and different from men. Interestingly, gender has somehow become synonymous with women. The teaching profession in South Africa has long been characterized by unequal treatment of women in education. Dr. P.J. du Plessis

Gender equality is one of the important phenomena in development, in that uneven development results in gender inequality. In the process of development, some groups of people, especially men, benefit more than others because the structures allow them to participate more. The poor are thought of as men mainly, whereas the majority of the poor are women. There can be no sustainable development when decisions about changing the lives of people are taken without the participation of half of the very lives that have to be changed, i.e. women. In an attempt to address gender inequality, feminist theories emphasize the need for equal treatment of men and women. The main concern is how women are encouraged to participate in development. Thus, gender approaches were introduced so as to mainstream women into development. Again, there is increasing recognition among politicians and researchers of the importance of considering gender issues in local government policy to reduce political inequalities, and to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the local government. It is extremely necessary that women should also participate in decision-making at this level of governance. This case study was conducted at the Krugersdorp Local Council. The main objective of the study was to evaluate factors that inhibit or promote the participation of women in political decision-making. Focus group interviews were conducted, and twenty respondents participated in the study. Some of the major findings of this study were that the community around Krugersdop is still patriarchal and that the Krugersdorp Local Council is not yet gender sensitive. Also, the triple roles, lack of safety and not knowing the role of being a councillor inhibit women councillors from political decision-making. On the other hand, the proportional representation encourages women to participate in political decision-making. Dr. Maria Motebang

In 1996 the Crimes (Female Genital Mutilation) Act was passed in Victoria, Australia. The consultation with migrant communities, affected by the practices, was almost non-existent. The methods of the consultation, the implementation of the legislation and the use of the term "female genital mutilation" were objected to by the migrant communities. This objection and implementation mirrored similar legislative initiatives and similar methods of implementation in the United States, Canada, Scotland, England and Egypt. This thesis is an analysis of the speech on, and against, female genital mutilation. The analysis explores the texture of this speech, understood as a particular and invested arrangement of fantasy. This fantasy concerns the relation between the liberal subject and the sovereign. The relation is parsed in terms of the economic, the psychoanalytic and the political. These are the three idioms through which fantasies, of female genital mutilation emerge in contemporary times as a fantasy of flesh cut and the possibility of free speech. The thesis has four parts. In the first part it explores fantasies of subjectivity understood as the constitution of a mutilated woman against a fantasy of a non-mutilated liberal subject (as a postcolonial concern). The context for the exploration is firstly the emergence of the above mentioned Crimes (Female Genital Mutilation) Act 1996, and secondly its relations to the formation of the modern liberal subject (Rousseau, Hobbes, Schmitt and Freud). In Part B the thesis explores economies of flesh. First and foremost the economy is staged as a relation between the subject and the sovereign. This relation is figured as a tension between a fantasy of circumcision and a fantasy of mutilation. The psychoanalytic theories of Lacan and the political theories of Agamben are called to aid this exploration. In Part C the thesis discusses the politics of freedom articulated in sovereign democratic politics. Here the thesis moves from its focus on female genital mutilation legislation and places it in the contemporary politics of the `war on terror', evocations of national community and the problematics of a cultural pluralism. These are understood in terms of the differential orientations to loss (of freedom and speech)'; known as melancholia, psychosis and mourning. Mourning is the concern of Part D. In doing so the thesis returns to the speech on and against female genital mutilation and their invocations of human rights. The limits is figured in this part by reference to the protest of an African woman who says `I am not mutilated.' The figure of this woman returns us to the dialectic of flesh and speech that this thesis has argued embodies western fantasies of female genital mutilation. What is lost, but returns to haunt the liberal subject, imagining itself sovereign, is the possibility of freedom and an authorised loss of speech, in a democratic politics worthy of the name.

This study employed quantitative and qualitative methods to examine gender trends and the quality of gender interactions at the United States Naval Academy (USNA). In addition to gender, midshipmen demographics, experiences, personality types, interests, and graduation outcomes were compared within and across gender for graduation years, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2004. Representation of women has increased to the current high of around 16%. Further, the data revealed similarities and differences between men and women in terms of their non-gender characteristics. Women's SAT scores and Cumulative Quality Point Ratios (QPRs) are on par with the men's. Proportionally, women are more likely to be extroverts and varsity athletes than are men. Women are less likely to be technical majors. Women are being afforded leadership experiences to the same extent as men. Perceptions regarding gender relations and cohesion were assessed through focus groups conducted with 110 midshipmen. Although gender representation has increased, and the Administration is credited with improving the explicit climate, there does not yet exist a completely gender-neutral or women "friendly" climate. The preponderance of findings regarding gender interactions at the Naval Academy suggests that male midshipmen have yet to fully accept female midshipmen. The Naval Academy must continue to confront the subsurface issues and dynamics persisting amongst male and female midshipmen. Recommendations include making an institutional commitment to improving gender interactions and company cohesion, securing alumni cooperation, and involving midshipmen in improving the gender climate. http://archive.org/details/genderrepresenta109451721 Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

After four decades, we are still debating how much impact affirmative action can and should have on opportunities and outcomes at work.

We don’t normally think of highly successful people as likely to suffer due to psychological pressure or stereotyping. But according to social psychologists, it is those most invested in their achievement who are most likely to fall prey to a kind of unconscious behavior known as stereotype threat.

Although existing organizational and cultural practices have the benefit of creating incentives to increase output, they may also create perverse incentives that have negative economic effects outside the relatively easily measured world of market outcomes.

Even if we could completely eliminate intentional discrimination, unconscious bias would still remain.

We should acknowledge that discrimination still exists and that women’s work lives have been considerably improved by their ability to legally challenge discriminatory practices.

Deloitte & Touche was hiring the best and brightest men and women, and proportionately losing 80 percent of the women before they reached partner level.

This thesis uses tools and measures emerging social network analysis to study whether organisations are gender neutral. (...) We will be using the same data as these authors as Scandinavian countries and, specially, Norway are quite advanced in implementing equality policies. Equality strategies have been seen as potential ways to counteract the strong patterns of occupational sex segregation, both from governments, policymakers as well as researchers. We will focus only in the data referred to the corporate Boards of Directors (BODs). The complete data description of the data is given in x4.1. In particular, we do believe that social network analysis will be a useful to help to answer some relevant questions as: 1. Which will be the influence of women in society after the implementation of gender equality policies? 2. Do relations among BODs members will change? 3. Are mandatory gender quotas on corporate boards good policies?

Despite advances in gender policy and equality laws in the twenty-first century, women are still a minority in the full professor category in Europe. Some measures establish gender quotas to balance gatekeeper positions, which will supposedly pave the way to make women’s integration into senior higher education positions easier. In Spain, Organic Act 3/20071 of 22 March on effective equality between women and men launched progressive norms governing gender issues, and the Spanish Science and Technology Act (2011) incorporated measures to promote effective equality in academic institutions. This paper evaluates how Spanish evaluation agencies’ compliance with implementing gender balance has affected the composition of evaluation committees and its impact on the advancement of women in science. Findings reveal some positive figures on women’s representation in recent decades, even though gender-balanced committees do not show any clear evidence of causing this effect. There seems to be no correlation between gender-balanced committees and women’s success rates, suggesting intermediate variables affect women’s low participation in competitive submissions. It explores several factors concerning two agencies’ evaluation procedures, such as formality and transparency, direct/multiple gatekeeping processes, the influence of epistemic cultures, cohorts and confidence of female candidates.